From the Start of the 12th Dynasty to the 18th
Old Kingdom
The Thutmosides
Thutmose III.
El Amarna Period
 Abram and Sara in Egypt
The Reliability of 12th Dynasty sources
Preliminary Discussion
A survey of Dynasty 12 Activities
Famine Inscriptions
Chronological Time Frame 		The Exodus
Ancient Sources and the Hyksos/Amu/Amalekites
Hyksos, Canaanites and City Dwellers
Hyksos Artifacts
The Ancient Israelites 		Encyclopedia
EA Letters
Hebrew Lexicon
Ancient Israel & the OK
A Revised Version

As we know, the further back in time we try to understand chronological history, they more difficult it may be to come up with one which does not need siginificant changes. Our most recent file on the Old Kingdom illustrates that we may have to step back once more and reconsider. As for now, we may regard this paper and the one on the Old Kingdom as two scanarious intended to explain the very distant past. There are attractive possiblitites in either one of them and we do not subscribe to rigorous, unchangeable chronology in such an era of which we know only very little.

When Abram and Sara traveled to Egypt it was because of a famine in Palestine. This famine apparently did not affect Egypt since that is where Abram found shelter and victuals. The interesting part is that he moved right into the town where the king of Egypt dwellt and soon Sara received Pharaoh's attention. [As to the possible identity of this king click here] Because of a lie Abram and Sara agreed upon, it did not take long and they were found out by the king in that deception. As a result Abram and all his clan were sent away from before Pharaoh.

But before this came about we learn from Josephus account of Abram in Egypt that he was eager to learn of their religion and became known to them as a teacher on the old days and on the secrets of astronomy. As we pointed out elsewhere that the old age these biblical patriarchs are said to have reached is entirely possible considering that some people, even today, reach ages of close to 120 years. This includes only those who make the news. Long life spans make it very likely possible to achieve great skills in observations and could very well have developed knowledge in, what we call today mathematics and astronomy, to a high degree. Joseph/Imhotep might have received training in these skills and that is why today methematicians are baffled in how the Egyptians could construct pyramids, and especially the great pyramid of Giza, with such high mathematical precisions seemingly betraying highly developed geometry/math skills. This writer supports the view that the assertion of Josephus of the knowledge of the patriarchs, even those before Abraham, in astronomy is no mere exaggeration but may be the reason for ancient, applicable achievements in the region. Unbelief and false chronology has hidden such probable correlations away from modern scholars slighted understanding of these ancient times. As we know, such knowledge can be passed on and later patriarchs could have continued these studies to a higher and higher degree based on their predeccessors level of knowledge. Just the same as they wrote their `Toledoth' histories on tablets of clay, so too, could they have recorded their growing body of knowledge in the above skills. The natural talent of Joseph/Imhotep then carried it to an especially high level of achievements. Conventional historians recognize these high achievements of Imhotep but are not able to make our connections because of their variant chronology.

The visit to and later expulsion of Abram from Egypt took place soon after he had arrived in Canaan (Hebr. `knan'), coming from Ur in Chaldea - even before he and Lot had separated their growing family and livestock from each other. The dry conditions in Palestine had also driven up the prices of staple goods. This fact is given in Genesis as a reason for Abram's move into Egypt. It is after his return from Egypt that we read:

"And Abram was very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold."[Genesis 13:2]

Having seen the needs of the Egyptians [Genesis 12:16; Exodus 9:3], their herds of sheep, cattle, donkeys and camels [1], he may have arranged for caravans of camels to transport grain. It appears that the high prices in Canaan made Abram into an increasingly rich grain merchant, buying grain in Egypt and selling it to those remaining in Canaan. He knew them and knew how to deal with the Palestinian population.

Another historical lesson we can learn from this incident is, that it appears Pharaoh had free interactions with his citizens and probably maintained an open court with his subjects. The story almost makes one think that Pharaoh, from his vantage point, was watching the coming and going of the people in his city. But if it was not the king himself, his courtiers must have been keenly aware of all strangers arriving from afar. We also learn that their standard of morals at this time was in some ways not unlike what the Hebrew faith espoused and Abram fell short of at this time. Even though these events took place some 200 years before the birth of Joseph they provide the first scriptural glimpse into aspects of Old Kingdom life in Egypt. [Genesis 12:10-13:2; Josephus, `Antiquities', Bk. I, ch. viii]

The Reliability of 12th Dynasty Sources
 The details of the chronology of the 12th Dynasty are not derived from a single source but from several sources in a somewhat haphazard manner. Despite the many uncertainties pertaining to the sequence and length of reigns of the ruling kings, its overall duration and time slot are supposed to be one of the most certain of all old dynasties. However, that long held, confidential claim does not rest on a sure foundation.

Some of the written sources used to shed light on the specifics of the 12th dynasty are in disagreement and other source material is missing or unreadable in critical areas. The monuments provide us only with the dates of the latest inscriptions in the reigns of the several kings and this way provide only the minimal number of years. (For details on the 12th Dynasty kings and sources see `King Lists' on this website.) For our purposes it is not as important to discuss the exact years of the kings of the Old and Middle Kingdom Dynasties as it is to locate the background to the Joseph story and the sojourn of Israel in Egypt.


The duration of some Old Kingdom Egyptian Dynasties are presented this way:

In the 1st Intermediate Period according to Manetho through Africanus
Afric. ... 7th Dynasty ....................... 70 kings of Memphis who reigned for 70 days
Afric. ... 8th Dynasty ....................... 27 kings of Memphis who reigned for 146 years
Euseb. ... 8th Dynasty ....................... 5 kings reigning for 100 years
Afric. ... 9th Dynasty ....................... 19 kings of Heracleopolis who reigned for 409 years
10th Dynasty ...................... 19 kings of Heracleopolis who reigned for 185 years
Total years of reign for the 9th and 10th Dynasties = 594 years

11th Dynasty ..................... 16 kings of Thebes/Diospolis who reigned for 43 years
[A. Gardiner, `Egypt of the Pharaohs', 1961]
It appears that in reality the Egyptian data relinquish only the meagerest of reliable information on the chronology of the kings of the Old Kingdom Dynasties and any claims of assigning years to these kings are just mere guesses and conjectures. As we show in our `Old Kingdom' article, there is evidence that the Old and Middle Kingdom were really roughly the same kingdom.

Preliminary Discussions of some Old Kingdom Dynasties just to be sure we have a working knowledge how good or how poor the information is we have about them.

 The length of the 3rd Dynasty according to:

1. The Turin Canon .......... Djoser (19 yrs) ...... Total length of dynasty = 55 years 4/5 kings
2. Manetho ...................... Djoser (29 yrs) ...... Total length of dynasty =214 years 9 kings
3. Abydos list ................... supports Turin Canon with 4 rulers ... But the names of rulers don't
4. Sakkara list .................. supports Turin Canon with 4 rulers ... agree with each other and make no sense.

The first king of the 3rd Dynasty is supposed to have been Djoser for 19 years. What do we really know about him?

1. His name was found on an ivory plaque supposedly from shortly after his time.
2. The identity of Djoser with a) Netjrikhe of the hieroglyphics and b) Tosorthros of Manetho depends on the reliability of a rock inscription from Ptolemaic times.
3. From his time there is a report of a 7 year famine in which Imhotep was sought after for wise council.

A Survey of Dynasty 12 Activities

It was a dynasty during the time of which kings now indicated that they ruled over Lower and Upper Egypt just by engraving the `sam' sign on the side of their throne names. In their days the River Nile comes to prominence. Since we identified this dynasty as that fitting best the background to the Joseph story and the enslavement of Israel in Egypt we must look around for evidence in doing so. The Biblical account requires that the kings of the time of Joseph had a palace in the Nile delta region and probably ruled Egypt from there. Historians agree that the 12th Dynasty ruled from the Nile Delta area but also had other centers of activities (i.e. Kahun, ...) and did much of their construction work in brick from the deep south in Egypt to the Nile Delta. Testimony to this fact are the so-called mud brick pyramid of Sesostris (II) (Senusret) at Lahun, mud brick fortifications at Bahun, the pyramid of Amenemhet (III) at Dashur, the latter king many of whose building blocks were much later usurped by Ramses II.1&2) The 12th Dynasty is also the time when temple columns began to be adorned with a lotus bud at the top. The lotus motif was adopted by the Israelites in their art work for the temple, [1.Kings 7:22] and also by Thutmose III at Karnak.

1) Sir W.M.Flinders Petrie, `Illahun Kahun and Gurob', Encino, CA, 1st ed. 1891, this ed. 1974;
2) E. Naville, `Bubastis', p. 8-14]

It appears that 12th Dynasty constructions in the southern regions at Buhen had been done in bricks for an extended time being the easiest method then. Some of these may be due to Israelite slave labor. Before pharaoh set taskmasters over the Israelites the work had been done by the usual trades people. But now the burdens were especially put on the people they were afraid of because of their prosperousness and growth in population. In the fields and construction sites they were put to work with hard taskmasters keeping a watchful eye over them. Production levels were increased tremendously as evidenced by results of excavations.

The Man Joseph

First of all the name itself. The Hebrew word/name Yo-(ho)-safe' means `let him add' or as his mother Rachel said, `The Lord shall add to me another son'. Yo-safe' is the plural of yaw-saf, to add or augment. Joseph then is the birth name of this son of Rachel given him by his Hebrew mother and not some later Egyptian name where the vowels `a' and `e' are expressed in pronunciation. Joseph arrived in Egypt as a young man and married Asenath, the daughter of Potipherah, the priest of On.

This information precludes the theory that Joseph lived during Hyksos rule in Egypt. On or An was the ancient capital of Heliopolis (As-t Tem). Some claim that Egyptians also believed in One Great God who was never represented in their art work. Only his attributes, functions as Creator, Teacher and Healer were known as the neter or neteru. The Egyptian Ox Song of the Threshing Floor The symbolism surrounding Egyptian deities then is different from this One Great God, in whose image man was made, in that it scales our world and the universe to our dimensions so man can grasp it. The Egyptian name for this `One Great God' is neter*), probably an echo or more distant memory of the biblical Creator God. [*I.S. de Lubicz, `Her-Bak', p. 341]

In these concepts of the `One Great God' we can trace just a faint knowledge of the `One Great Creator God' who revealed himself to his chosen patriarchal men and who Joseph was faithful to throughout his life. Before Joseph, Abram acquainted the Egyptians with the `One Great Creator God' the `God of (agape) Love', the One, no one can represent in stone or wood for he is a spirit, a God beyond our comprehension of what beings can be like.

In revised view it is futile to describe the time of Joseph in the context of New Kingdom history, we must look to the Old and Middle Kingdom, VI./XII. Dynasty times and their earlier kings the Amenemhets I-III, mist likely being the same person, as well as the Sesostris I-III most likely being the same person. [See Here] Under the 5th Dynasty Userkaf "the Heliopolitan priesthood began to wield an unprecedented influence."
[Gardiner, `Egypt of the Pharaohs', p. 84; "At Heliopolis a solitary obelisk still stands, a witness to the great temple which Senwosre I erected there.", p. 144]

In agreement with the statement of Alan Gardiner on priests at On, and according to the opinion of Dr. Courville that the last 50 years of the 5th Dynasty overlap with the 12th Dynasty, we ought to recognize that there were priests at Heliopolis/On during that time. On that basis then it could very well be that the ancient city of `On' was a place of activities during 12th Dynasty times. Therefore, the biblical assertian that the father-in-law of Joseph was a `priest of On' should exclude the possibility that Joseph lived during Hyksos times (since they only worshipped Seth), while we see a stronger likelihood that the circumstance of his priesthood at On underscores a 12th Dynasty connection. The city of On is also mentioned in the Bible, see Genesis 41:45, 50; 46:20, and thought to have also been known as Beth-Shemesh, a name which more than one location seemed to have had, Jeremiah 43:13.

Famine Inscriptions

Famines did occur in Egypt but rarely since they would require no rainfall over large areas of East Central Africa and Ethiopia for an extended period of time.

There exists a famine inscription in the tomb of one named `Ameni' who dates it to the 25th year in his office and the 43rd year of Pharaoh Sesostris I under whom he served.

"... No child of the poor did I afflict; no widow did I oppress; no landowner did I displace; no herdsmen did I drive away; from no small farmer did I take away his men for my works. No one was unhappy in my days, not even in the years of famine. For I had tilled all the fields of the nome of Mah, up to its southern and northern frontiers. Thus I prolonged the life of its inhabitants and preserved the food which it produced. No hungry man was in it. I distributed equally to the widow as to the married woman. I did not prefer the great to the humble in all that I gave away." [Brugsch, `Egypt Under the Pharaohs', Vol. I, p. 158; ]
The famine meets the criteria of Joseph's famine in three major aspects:

1. The famine lasted several years
2. Preparations were made in advance to meet the needs of this disaster by gathering food
3. The food was distributed during the years of famine

Ameni's assurances of treating people in a fair manner leads one to assume that at other times and for other occasions the opposite had also taken place. His leniency and good will seems to have another origin than his own inclinations. One may wonder, if these individuals were indeed contemporaries of Joseph. Did his influence reach so far as to produce this kind of just treatment of fellow citizens by Egyptian native officials? Could we take this faint observation as a chronological crutch to help us understand that the attitudes at the time of Ameni reflect attitudes the Bible attributes to Joseph? Is that too much to read into this story? You decide.

The Biblical Chronological Time Frame - From the Promise to Abraham to the Exodus

 Genesis 15:13: "And he said unto Abram, Know for sure that thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall serve them; and they shall afflict them 400 years."

Exodus 12:41: "And it came to pass at the end of the 430 years, that all the hosts of the Lord went out from the land of Egypt."
430 years after the promise was given to Abraham, Israel left Egypt. 480 after that Solomon built the temple in Jerusalem. This 910 year time span includes the time of the patriarchs, Joseph in Egypt, the 7 years of plenty and 7 years of famine, years of bondage up to the Exodus, the period of the judges, Saul and David.

Egyptian Life Moses was 80 years old at the time of the Exodus. He was born 64 years after the death of Joseph who died at the age of 110 years. Therefore, 80 + 64 = 144 years. But bondage came to Israel not right after the death of Joseph but almost 20 years later. So the entire period Israel spent under conditions of slavery is about 125 years. That is how Exodus 12:41 is to be understood.

Another scripture verse which explains the length of time involved for this crucial period as far as understanding scripture is concerned is Judges 11:26:

"While Israel lived in Heshbon and its villages, and in Aroer and its villages, and in all the cities that are on the banks of the Arnon, 300 years, why did you not recover them within that time." [NASB.]

Jephthah, who is telling the history of the Exodus, is usually assigned to about 1100 BC. He states that Israel dwelled in the land already for 300 years. Simple math tells us that Israel then took possession of the land about 1400 BC, which we can narrow down better with other scriptures cited above to have been 1445 BC. The conquest Jephthah is talking about under Joshua took place 40 years after the Exodus, thus taking us to ca. 1400 (1405) BC, the time Jephthah refers to. Taking all these texts together we have a solid time frame indeed despite the assertions of todays historians to the contrary.
Furthermore important chronological information spanning the time between Joseph and Joshua comes to us from 1.Chronicles 7:23-27:

Ephraim, Joseph's son, is about 5 yrs of age when Jacob arrives in Egypt. According to the Book of Chronicles 10 generations reach from Joshua back to Ephraim: Joseph ~ 1667; Ephraim ~1647; Beriah ~1627; Repham ~1607; Resheph ~1587; Telah ~1567; Tahan ~1547; Laadan ~1527; Ammihud ~1507; Elishama ~1487; Nun ~1467; Joshua ~1447.

Allowing 20 years for each of these 10 generations, we see that the period of slavery for Israel was less than 200 years, namely about 125 years.

While we present the biblical time frame, we have not presented the sequences and duration of Egyptian dynasties following the end of the 12th Dynasty. Many websites present such schemes which in essence, however, are nothing more then `educated' guesses. We really do not know how the Hyksos Dynasties are to be interpreted, much less arranged.

But there is another text we must cite and where Balaam is speaking:

"... and his king shall be higher than Agag ... And when he looked on Amalek, he took up his parable and said, Amalek was the first of the nations; but his latter end shall be that he perish forever ... there shall come a star out of Jacob, and a Sceptre shall rise out of Israel, and shall smite the corners of Moab, and destroy all the children of Seth."[Number 24:17]

Who are the `children of Seth?' There is no clear opinion as to their identity. But we know that the Hyksos worshipped the god Seth whom they also introduced into the Egyptian pantheon. The term "children of Seth" signifies worshippers of Seth, or Hyksos. Therefore the references to the Amalekites and to the children of Seth by Balaam reveal the identity of these two designations telling us that the Hyksos were the Amalekites. [See D. Woolley in KMT Magazine, Vol. 10, No. 4, Winter 1999-2000, p. 6]
Once again we have here the history of Israel presented quite differently from how we read it in modern history books. Who are we going to credit with the better explanation? Modern researchers who think they can accurately trace faint colors and layers in the sandy soil and assign them to the correct time periods, or the ancient sources? Is that a hard choice to make?

The best fitting circumstantial background for the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt is during the time of the 12th dynasty because it presents the scriptural requirements.
Pros

a) the royal house was located in
the delta
Genesis 47:5-11, 27;
b) the kings of this dynasty did
most of their constructions in
bricks and not stone-Exodus 1:14
c) its form of government was a
feudal system where regional
governors or officials (nomarchs)
oversaw nomes and reported
to the king, Genesis 41:41-46; 42:6;
d) beginning with Sesostris III
the form of the government
changed to direct rule, now the
king oversaw everything
himself. Exodus 1:8-14;
e) it had a vizier, Mentuhotep,
whose powers were just like those
attributed to Joseph
Genesis 41:41-46;
f) during its time a famine occurred
Genesis 41:54-57;
g) the astronomical fix of its era is
not without major problems
 Cons

a) the 19th dynasty also had
governmental centers in the delta
but not the primary royal house;
b) other dynasties like the 19th also
built with bricks in the delta
region;
c) detractors say famines also occurred
at other times (without stating
which famine they had in mind);


d) since the days of Francoise
Champollion conventionally accepted
dating took shape and scholars
agreed among each other when
assigning key dates for certain kings
e) it is said to be astronomically fixed.

Possible Identities of Joseph

The 12th dynasty is currently dated to an earlier century, at least partly due to the Sothic dating method developed by Eduard Meyer at the turn of the 19th/20th century. But as has been pointed out elsewhere1) the star of Sothis was not Sirius but instead the planet Venus, making the Sothic dating method irrelevant. Venus has long been known as the `Queen of the Heavens.' Without going into the details on this subject at this time [but available upon request] we date the 12th dynasty to the 17th/16th century BC. The earlier kings of this dynasty ruled the land of Egypt by appointed governors also known as the feudal system. This made it possible for pharaoh to elevate Joseph to such a position and make him the #2 man in the country. And in fact we find the name `Aufni' in the Turin list2) of the 13th dynasty which may also be read `Yufni' or `Yusef', a satisfactory rendition for `Joseph.'

Since we place Joseph into the time of the 12th Dynasty we want to study names of influential people from its records to see if a person like `Joseph' can be found in them. We are aware of David Rohl's choice for Joseph but find no good reasons to agree with it. Names of other personalities of the time of Joseph are

1. Potiphar
2. Ptahwer
3. Yata
4. Zaphenath-paneah/Zaphnath-paaneah - `The master of the school of learning' [E. Naville, `The Egyptian Name of Joseph' in Proceedings, June, 1910, p. 203-210]
5. Ameni

Of these a name which perhaps comes closest to the biblical name `Potiphar' in the records of Pharaoh Amenemhet (III) is one `Ptahwer' who was also Immanuel Velikovsky's pick for `Potiphar'. He wrote:
"According to the Book of Genesis Potiphar was `an officer of Pharaoh, captain of the guard.' In the register of the private names to the Ancient Records of Egypt by James Breasted, we find the name Ptahwer."

Ptahwer was at the service of the Pharaoh Amenemhet (III) of the Twelfth Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom. According to an inscription of Ptahwer at Sarbut el-Khadem in Sinai dated in the forty-fifth year of Amenemhet, his office was that of `master of the double cabinet, chief of the treasury.' [Breasted, `Records', Vol. I, Sec. 722]

Ptahwer's text reads:

"I was one sent to bring plentiful ____ from the land of ____, ready in his reports to his lord, delivering Asia to him who is in the palace, bringing Sinai at his heels, traversing inaccessible valleys, bringing unknown extremities (of the world), the master of the double cabinet, chief of the treasury, Ptahwer, triumphant, born of Yata."[Breasted, `Records', Vol. I, Sec. 728]

The inscription records the successful accomplishment of some peaceful expedition. Since there is only one Ptahwer in the historical documents, and since he lived in the time when we expect to find him, we are probably not wrong in identifying the biblical Potiphar with the historical Ptahwer.

This being the conclusion concerning Potiphar, we are curious to find whether any mention of Joseph is found in historical documents too. The fact is, that from the great and glorious age of the Middle Kingdom only a very few historical inscriptions are extant. Since a great famine took place in the days of Joseph, it is, of course, important to trace such a famine in the age of which we speak.

In the days of Beba there occurred in Egypt a famine enduring several long years. Of this period we have a revealing document, which reads:

"I collected corn as a friend of the harvest god. I was watchful at the time of sowing. And when the famine arose lasting many years, I distributed corn to the city each year of the famine." [Brugsch-Bey, Henry, `Egypt Under The Pharaohs', 2nd edition, 1881, p. 304; See also Jacques Vandier, `La Famine Dans L'Egypt Ancienne', Cairo, 1936; The author has gathered the numerous references to famine and to famine conditions from the many ancient inscriptions in Egypt.]

With these expressions the words of the Scriptures can be compared (Genesis 41:54):

"And the seven years of dearth began to come, according as Joseph had said; and the dearth was in all lands; but in the land of Egypt there was bread."[Genesis 41:54]

Thus it seems that the Pharaoh in whose days was the seven years' famine was the successor of the Pharaoh in whose days began the rise of Joseph's career (if Yatu is Joseph). Potiphar, who lived under Amenemhet, probably lived also under his successor. The inscription which deals with Ptahwer mentions a man whose name is transliterated by Breasted as Y-t-w. Among the monuments of Amenemhet (III's) reign is one of the Storekeeper who was honored together with two other persons, and , with a royal figure.

If we remember that according to the Scriptural narrative Joseph was appointed storekeeper of the State (Gen. 41:40-41) in anticipation of the seven lean years, with the powers of a chief Minister of State or Vice-King, we may suspect in Yatu the Biblical Joseph. In the Scriptures it is said that his name was changed by Pharaoh to Zaphnath-paaneah, but still his original name may have been in use until he became next to the Pharaoh in importance.

The inscription that mentions Ptahwer refers to his activity in the mines of the Sinai peninsula. In this respect it is of interest to find that the Jewish traditions connect Joseph with the area of the Sinai Peninsula saying that he kept a large quantity of treasuries near Baal Zaphon, the scene of the Passage of the Sea.

The beautiful story of Joseph appears to be a narrative in the style of Egyptian literature of the Middle Kingdom. It should be noted that Egyptian literature achieved its apogee in this period of Egypt's history. Literary creations such as "The Story of Sinuhe" or "The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor" were equalled neither before nor after the Middle Kingdom. And the beautiful style of the story of Joseph seems to be a product of the same time; it could have been written at the end of the Middle Kingdom, before the end of the sojourn of Israel in Egypt.

Under Sesostris III a change to direct rule took place. He was not a pharaoh in direct line to the throne and was unfamiliar with the background of Joseph. During his rule the Israelites became enslaved. Later he would be idolized as a god in the Semna and Kumma temples. It appears that Thutmose III also associated himself with this king now regarded as a god. The 12th dynasty ruled from the delta area and did most of their construction projects in brick.

If Ameni can be related to Aufni of the Turin king list remains to be seen.

In 1997 an American team discovered the palace like home of a mayor dated to Senwosret III/Sesostris III. The ancient name of the town it was located in is `Enduring-are-the-Places-of- Khakaure-maa-kheru' in Abydos, Egypt. The University of Pennsylvania archaeologist Wegner said, `The house was built of brick, plastered throughout, and had a broad front hall with 14 columns running the entire width of the building. Fragments of statuettes, cosmetic coal pots, jewelry and mirrors with ebony and ivory handles show that the mayor had an affluent lifestyle.'

Amenemhet (I) and Sesostris (III) himself left traces of his presence at the Pelusiac branch of the Nile in the area of old Qantir. A stela was found in what was described a temple. An inscribed doorway lintel of Amenemhet (I) was found at `Ezbet Helmi' (near Qantir) which, archaeologists guessed, was transported there from `Ezbet Rashdi', which also bears a later added inscription of Sesostris (III). Manfred Bietak then describes several graves and the grave of a warrior which had escaped thiefs and in it were found a dagger, spear points, a bronze belt and a duckbill type ax head from about the time of Amenemhet (III).

After Sesostris came Amenemhet IV followed by Queen Pharaoh Sebeknefrure. The princess who raised Moses then was most likely Sebeknefrure. But as we are showing elsewhere on this website, there are strong indications that the Old Kingdom dynasties are being misinterpreted and that in fact there are many parallels between the Old and Middle Kingdom dynasties and parallel dynasties instead of neat successive arrangements as taught by conventionalists. One fact is now fairly secure, Moses does not belong in New Kingdom times as we show in several papers, directly and indirectly, at this website.
Crown of a 12th Dynasty princess and uraeus. She apparently married Chenephres who was supposed to have been the foster father of Moses. We conclude that with respect to the 12th Dynasty background, most likely, Amenemhet IV was the pharaoh of the Exodus. However, as we show here the 4th and 12th dynasties actually overlapped with respect to their time.
1) Velikovsky's and Damien Mackey's paper on the Sothic dating method.
2) Turin Papyrus: 1.Ra-khu-taui (Sebekhotep I),2.Sokhemkara,3.Ra-Amenemhet I, 4. Sehotapabra I, 5.Aufni, 6.Sankhabra, 7.Smenkara, 8.Sehotepabra II ...

Israelites in Egypt - Did they Assimilate?

During at least the last 2000 years Jewish people living abroad have been a very distinct people and are not known for assimilating to a degree which would cause the loss of their identity. The same situation existed during their Babylonian captivity. The situation of the Ten tribes being driven into exile is somewhat different because they also had abandoned their cultural, religious ties even while still living in their regions. The Assyrian onslought on their land must have left them largely demoralized to such a large degree that the remnants of these tribes may have abandoned all their ties to the remaining two tribes which still may have existed after a period of estrangement lasting over 200 years. The Israelites in Egypt appear to have been a closely knit community which kept them distinct from the Egyptians on the basis of cultural, religious and linguistic differences, powerful factors which kept them a separate people for over 400 years in Egypt. The Hebrew Bible mentions `Goshen' as the land or province Israel dwelled in (Gen. 46:28; Joshua 15:51), in the Greek version it is called `Kessan'. If the Israelites constructed pyramids for the king during their period of slavery, they may have dwelled in `workers villages' closer to their job sites. As we have shown that the period of slavery lasted just ca. 125 years, this change in their status was not long enough to dissolve their cohesive qualities as a people. In fact under duress they may have strengthened their traditional family ties. But the traces of their sojourn in Egypt cannot be found in New Kingdom times but are to be looked for in much earlier centuries.


The Exodus

According to D. Courville, the Exodus took place just a few years after the end of the 12th dynasty when one of the princes of the thirteenth dynasty had become pharaoh. The many names of this dynasty were composed of governors and officials in office before and during the reign of the 12th dynasty and even out-existed it. One of the rulers of this dynasty became the pharaoh of the Exodus. According to Courville, a good candidate is Koncharis [5 yrs]3) because the names following his, in the Turin king list, are not Egyptian names and probably names of later Amalekite/Hyksos, officials and kings. Koncharis was Courville's choice because his reign lasted only for some 5 years. Others have suggested Khafre (Chephren) whose length of reign is given as 26 years, or Djoser of the 3rd Dynasty whose reign supposedly lasted about 19 years. According to Damien Mackey, however, the Pharaoh of the Exodus was the short reigning Amenemhet IV (1year?). This identification has the merit that the facial likeness of this king to that of Sesostris III would exclude Amenemhet IV from having been Moses Egyptian name. At CIAS we shall change our stance on the identity of Amenemhet IV.

It is worthwhile to note that the name of the first and last Hyksos/Amalekite king was Apop, compare with Agog in the Bible. Kha_ankh_ra / Sebekhotep V


Famous Words

1. "Go in, speak unto Pharaoh king of Egypt, that he let the children of Israel go out of his land." Ex. 8:22.

2. "And Pharaoh called for Moses ... and said, `Go ye, sacrifice to your God in the land'." Ex. 8:25.

3. "And Pharaoh called unto Moses ... `Go ye ... only let your flocks and your herds be stayed: let your little ones also go with you.'"
"And Moses said, `Thou must also give us sacrifices and burnt offerings ... our cattle shall go with us; there shall not a hoof be left behind." Ex. 10:24-26.

4. "And Pharaoh rose up ... and he called for Moses ... and said, `Rise up, and get you forth from among my people, also take your flocks and your herds.'" Ex. 12:30-32.
The Exodus led to, in effect, God putting a wall of separation between Israel and the nations around about them. That wall was made up of the truth of God and it protected them from the things that were evil outside. The stones or building blocks of that wall were: (1) no human sacrifices, (2) no temple prostitution, (3) no paying to the sun god, (4) no burning of children in fire as offerings to the sun god.
3) A Portion of the Sothis King List: 20.Usimares, 21.Ramesseseos, 22.Ramessameno, 23.Ramesse Iubasse, 24.Rameses, son of Uaphres,
25. Koncharis, 26.Silites, 27.Bainon, 28.Apachnas, 29.Aphophis, 30.Sethos, 31.Certos, 32.Aseth, 33.Amosis, 34.Chebron, 35.Amemphis...

Koncharis is the Greek translation of an Egyptian name. Reversing the rules by which Egyptian names are transliterated into Greek, we get `Ka-ankh-Ra'. This name appears among the 13th Dynasty king list at Karnak. Brugsch located this name, and by comparison of the briefer Karnak list with the more complete Turin list, he concluded that `Ka-ankh-Ra' was to be identified with Sebekhotep V of the Turin list. [Henry Brugsch-Bey, `Egypt Under the Pharaohs', 2nd ed. 1881; E.A.W. Budge, `An Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary', Vol. II, p. 925]
When the Israelites finally left Egypt, they met the Amalekites at Sinai4) who were on their way into Egypt. No doubt they headed in that direction as a result of hearing about the unusual phenomena brought on by the Ten Plagues which according to the other accounts5) affected other regions as well. As we all can read, it came to a war between these two peoples but Israel prevailed against them. As the Israelites continued on to Palestine the Amalekites swept into Egypt. They encountered no resistance since all of pharaoh's army was overcome by the waters of the Red Sea and died including the pharaoh himself.

4) Traditionally Mt. Sinai has been identified with Mt. Jebel Musa at the foot of which monks built a monastery. Others, more recently, believe Mt. Har Karkhom was Mt. Sinai. At present we believe Mt. Jebel Musa to be the more likely location because of Exodus 13:17, 18:
"... God led them not through the way of the land of the Philistines, although that was near ... God led the people about, through the way of the wilderness of the Red sea ..." But the discussion may not yet be over.
5) We refer here mainly to the writings of Hebrew, Arab authors and Egyptian documents.
"... and the Lord overthrew the Egyptians in the midst of the sea.
And the waters returned, and covered the chariots, and the horsemen,
and ALL the host of Pharaoh that came into the sea after them; there
remained not so much as ONE of them. ... and Israel saw the Egyptians
dead upon the sea shore." [Exodus 14:27-30]
They all died. No doubt the Israelites scouted the area for quite a while looking for any survivors. They saw none. The intend is to convey that pharaoh himself died also. If, as some scholars maintain, the Exodus and related events were mere myth, this would have been a good spot for those writers of `this myth' to elaborate and tell us how they found the dead pharaoh. But in fact it reads more like a newspaper account, among all the dead bodies they couldn't find him and therefore didn't claim definitely that he was dead. In those days it was the king who, at the head of his army, would lead them into battle. To conclude otherwise would be to ignore the conventions of the time. Once there, the Amalekite/Hyksos began a 400 hundred year presence during which the native population in Egypt experienced hardship.

Their presence in Egypt is the reason why there was no friendly contact between Israel and Egypt between the 15th-12th century BC. But references to the Amalekites or associated tribes abound during this same time period. To place the 18th dynasty into this portion of history is anachronistic in every respect. When one of two neighboring nations has its highest period of economic and political achievements [Egypt under the 18th dynasty] we are asked to believe that Israel was at its lowest, rudimentary stage and never had any contact with their former guest nation. This view we cannot and need not accept.
Divergent views on the pharaoh and the event of the Exodus by ancient writers:

1. Josephus - Ahmose - Israelites were the Hyksoss
2. Africanus - Ahmose - Jews revolted under Ahmosee
3. Eusebius - Cencheres - At his time Moses led the Issraelites out of Egypt
4. Augustine - made Moses and Prometheus contemporary< [Augustine, `The City of God', Bk. 18, Chapter 8.]

As we shall show none of these candidates for pharaoh of the Exodus had anything to do with it. By the time they came to prominence the Exodus had already taken place and their age had been misdated by several centuries. Therefore, the later 13th Dynasty rulers and those of dynasties 14-17 are regarded as Hyksos Dynasty kings. Among these (14th Dyn.) potentates can we find the only royal hieroglyphic symbol of a pregnant woman, in the name of one `Sebek-ka-Ra', .

But we emphasize again, Ahmose had a lot to do with the expulsion of the Hyksos, that is the Hyksos/Amalekites and was aided in this by Saul and David.

Stress had been laid by conventional historians on the fact that Palestine was under Egyptian rule as late as the disturbances of 1358 BC, which put an end to the reign of Akhnaton according to their dates. Yet,

"Joshua did not find any such Egyptian hold during his conquest."
[Sir W.M.Flinders Petrie, `Palestine and Israel', (London, 1934), p.56]
.... thereby precluding any possibility that the 18th dynasty ruled Egypt during these years we believe.
But the very event of the Exodus and fall of Jericho is being doubted by scholars today. Commenting on the Exodus and the 40 years wandering to the promised land - this is what archaeologists say:
Arrangement of Israelite Camp
Arrangment of Israelite Camp 		William Foxwell Albright "defended the conquest model"
Albrecht Alt "a peaceful infiltration"
George Mendenhall "a peasant revolt"
Norman Gottwald "an internal social revolution"
Yohanan Aharoni "evidence for a peaceful infiltration"

Therefore is it so important for students of the Bible to understand the history presented at this website for it is the only one accounting for all details, biblical or non-biblical and combines them into a whole, well rounded picture of the ancient world and yet leaves the biblical record and for later eras, other ancient sources, intact.

Ancient Sources and the Hyksos/Amu/Amalekites

 Is there any reference preserved in the old Jewish sources that would hint at the Hyksos invasion of Egypt immediately after the departure of Israel?

"He [the Lord] cast [sent forth] among them fierceness of his anger,
wrath, and indignation, and trouble, by sending evil angels among them."[Psalm 78:49]

What does it mean `sending evil angels among them?' There is no plague known as the `visit of evil angels' while most of the other Ten Plagues are mentioned in this chapter. When the first born were slain in the tenth plague it was the angel of the Lord according to the Bible. [Exodus 12:29]
Could this be a corrupted text? The presumed Hebrew wording for `sending of evil angels' would be "mishlakhat malakhei-roim". But the Hebrew for `invasion of king-sheperds' is "mishlakhat malkhei-roim." The only difference in spelling is one silent letter, aleph, in the first case. When the copyist or editor of the sentence could find no sense in king-shepherds, he changed the word to evil angels. The first reading is not only unusual Hebrew, but it is also contrary to the grammatical structure of the language.

If roim (evil, plural) was used as an adjective here, the preceding word could not take a shortened form; roim must therefore be a noun. But if roim were a noun, it would be in the singular and not the plural; and finally, the correct plural of "evil" is not `roim' but `raoth.' "Evil angel" in correct Hebrew would be `malakhim roim'; "evil angels" would be `malakhei raoth.' Not only the sense but the grammatical form as well speaks for the reading, "invasion of king-shepherds." The verse should read then:

"The Lord sent forth upon them the fierceness of his anger, wrath, and
indignation, and trouble, invasion of king-shepherds."Ps.78:49

An old Hebrew legend throws a sidelight on the same theme.

"Amalek fetched from Egypt the table of descent of the Jews [Israelites] ...these lists lay in the Egyptian archives. Amalek appeared before the Jewish camp, and calling the people by name, he invited them to leave the camp and come out to him." [Ginzberg, `Legends', Vol. III, p. 56]

This legend implies knowledge on the part of the Israelites on the fact that the Amalekites came to Egypt and became rulers of the land. In what other way could they have come into possession of the census lists in the Egyptian archives?

In Papyrus Ipuwer it is said:

"Forsooth, public offices are opened and the census-lists are taken away.

Serfs become lords of serfs[?]" [Papyrus Ipuwer 6:7]

We can say therefore, that the Hebrew legend and the above line from the papyrus Ipuwer corroberate each other.

The Hyksos, Canaanites and Israelite City Dwellers

The most famous of the Hyksos kings was Apop. They ruled Egypt from their fortress of Auaris and according to Manetho-Josephus maintained garrisons throughout the country. They also had a garrison in Ephraim:

"Out of Ephraim their root is in Amalek." [Judges 5:14]

Obviously their root refers to the Canaanites, and to Jabin, king of Canaan, who reigned in Hazor, and to his captain Sisera, who commanded 900 chariots of iron. They oppressed Israel. In the next decades many of these Canaanite cities were taken over by members of the various Israelite tribes. The Israelites under Deborah and Barak temporarely broke the yoke Amalek put on them. The verse seems to mean that the strength of the Canaanites was based upon the support they received from the Amalekite citadel in the land of Ephraim.

"Pirathon in the land of Ephraim, in the mount of the Amalekites"[Judges 12:15]

Modern historians describe these Canaanites as being the producers of great works of art and merchandize but it appears to us the Bible portrays them more interested in supporting the Hyksos causes of sowing unrest and making life difficult for the Israelites. We know that the Israelites achieved high levels of production in metal working and many others skills. What are tauted to be Canaanite products, if attributed to Israelites, would work just as well and probably better to explain historical interdependencies and chronological interconnections. We should not forget that the Biblical story of the Levite and His Concubine implies that Israelites (the Benjamites) also lived in stone built towns:

"That evening an old man from the hill country of Ephraim ... came in from the work in the fields. When he looked up and saw the traveler in the city square, the old man asked ..." Judges 19; 20

This story implies that these towns of the Benjamites must have been under construction for some time before this event took place, effectively ending the `tent age' at least in those areas. When archaeologists come upon a town of the Benjamites who would they attribute it too? Would pottery be a safe guide with so many Canaanites still living around them and the Philistines not being far away? Should we assume that if the Benjaminites lived in such cities that some of the other tribes by this time could have been living in cities too? If that is so, what would that do to Palestinian stratigraphy?

How confusing the mixture of artifacts of different cultures can be was made more understandable during renewed excavations at the Israelite Beth Shemesh in 1990. Famed for is stalagtides filled sizable cave and located opposite from Zorah, the birthplace of Samson, and about halfway between Jerusalem and the Mediterraean Sea on the south bank of the Nahal Sorek, it plays a prominent part in the Bible*) but so far has not been found in non-biblical sources. So we read:

"The evidence from Beth-Shemesh is intriguing - even puzzling. It raises the question, once again, of how to identify Israelite remains in the archaeological record." [At a location called Beth Shemesh archaeologists found an intact and well made diorite stone bowl in a supposedly Canaanite house. For the BW image see BA, 1962, p. 89. For info on the Beth-Shemesh cave see BA, Vol. 40, Mar 1977, front picture. The cave was accidentally discovered during construction and involved dynamiting rocks away in a 1967 blasting operation exposing it. See also S. Bunimovitz & Z. Lederman, `Beth Shemesh - Culture Conflict' in BAR, Vol. 23, Jan/Feb 1997, p. 42-49. Featured are a city plan, a map, an excavation view, `The Secret of the Cistern' and golden earrings.]


*) Joshua 15:10; 19:41; 21:16; 1. Sam. 6:12; 1.Kings 4:9; 2.Kings 14:8-14; 2.Chronicles 28:18; [BAR, Jan/Feb 1997, p. 42]

The time when Israel entered Canaan, in our view - which is not unique - was ca. 1440 BC. In those days Adonizedek was king of Jerusalem, Hoham was king of Hebron (Kiriath-arba*), Piram king of Jarmuth, Japhia king of Lachish, and Debir king of Eglon. [Joshua 10:3; 21:11; Arba was the father of the Anokites.'; *Source, p. 183.]

We bring up the issue of Israelites being city dwellers because some historians stress the fact that the Israelites were `essentially nomads'. As Bryant Wood recites the views of David Rohl in a recent reply to the latters revision of history, we read:

"There is not the slightest hint in the archaeological record for this reconstruction. The MB IIB period was one of great prosperity. There is no evidence of a discontinuity or wide-spread destructions in the middle of the period. If the Conquest occurred at that time, then the nomadic Israelites peacefully took over the large MB IIB city-states and continued the Canaanite culture uninterrupted for the next 200 years. This would have entailed the design, construction, and maintenance of large urban centers throughout Canaan, including the building of massive fortification systems and temples at many sites."

According to Bryant Wood. such a situation is contrary to the Bible and Rohl's own statement,

"The Israelites were essentially pastoralists until the United Monarchy period rather than city dwellers."

Again citing the views of David Rohl, Bryant Wood continues:

In addition, the recent nomads would have possessed an advanced knowledge of the technology of metallurgy and pottery manufacture. They also would have had international relations with the Hyksos rulers of Egypt (Dever 1987)."

Now Bryant Wood presents his own point of view:

"This is a highly unlikely scenario. The Bible depicts the Israelites during the time of the Judges following the Conquest as subservient to the surrounding nations and living in tents (Jgs 20:8; 1 Sm 4:10, 13:2)." [Bryant Wood, 2001]

We believe that a more balanced view of the situation in Israel should have included the story of the Concubines which implies the Benjamites lived in cities and other tribesmen did too just like David Rohl claims. The living conditions of the Israelites during this time are of some importance when it comes to assigning layers and artifacts to a people and a time period during excavations. In essence then we lean more toward the more complex society view as described by David Rohl rather than the view of Bryant Wood on this issue.

According to professor Anati Early Bronze (EB) III Canaanite met the Israelites, Middle Bronze (MB) I.
Dr. John Osgood interprets Transjordan as follows:
1. The northern kingdom of Bashan should show evidence of Amorite civilisation; here equated with EBIII, which was ended by MBI Israelites.
2. The area of Gilead north of the Jabbok River but south of Bashan should have exactly the same pattern.
3. The area between Wadi Mujib (Arnon) and Wadi Jabbok will show evidence of 3 phases, the lower representing Moabite, here defined as EBIV, second, Sihon's civilisation holding Moab captive, will continue to be EBIV, and third, MBI Israelite.
4. In Moab, south of Wadi Mujib we will meet with EBIV culture which has arisen from the previous EBIII, and which will continue on without explicit conquest by MBI Israelite.

EBIV in Transjordan is defined most clearly in areas of ancient Moab. It will include a portion which was occupied by the Midianites mentioned in Numbers 31.

The archaeological pattern should mirror the biblical narrative, and it does.


It was the habit of the Amalekites to destroy the flora of a country by driving their numerous cattle and camels before them. That is the reason they were called the king-shepherds. [Judges 6:3-6; 7:12] They waited until the people of the land had sown, then shortly before the harvest they would invade the country side and carry off the produce.

The Egyptian document describing the defeat of the Hyksos/Amu/Amalekites is the Sallier Papyrus.6)

6) See Gunn and Gardiner, `Journal of Egyptian Archaeology', V (1918), p.40ff; A.H.Gardiner, "The Defeat of the Hyksos by Kamose," Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, III (1916), p. 95-110; J.H.Breasted, `Ancient Records of Egypt' (Chicago, 1906), Vol. II, Sec.7-13.

It parallels the biblical account very closely also placing Auaris in a riverbed.
When the Amalekites vanquished Egypt, they may have looked upon themselves as the legatees of the former Egyptian Empire with its colonies. In their wars with the Israelites in the succeeding centuries they might have argued that the Israelites had deserted their bondage in Egypt. Finally, to make the despoilers of Egypt equal with the Israelites is unwarranted and presents major problems in attempting to synchronize subsequent events.

The chronological consequences of Hyksos and other artifacts in far off places

Manetho is a late source on the dominance and expulsion of the Hyksos. He lived about 1000 years after these events. Nevertheless he provides the information that after the Hyksos invaded Egypt, destroying, burning, raping and ravaging, they established a dynasty of Hyksos pharaohs the first one being Salitis who resided in Memphis and "exacted tribute from Upper and Lower Egypt, and left garrisons in the places most suited to their defence. In particular he secured his eastern flank." There to the east he discovered a favorable place called Auaris, a strategic point from which to control both Egypt and Syria. The fourth Hyksos king was Apophis according to Manetho who ruled for 61 years. The rule of the Hyksos was cruel. They knew no mercy. Their fortresses were at times places of torture. Substantiation of this may be found in Hyksos period graves. We read: "A heap of bones stacked closely together, most of them of animals, but among them I found pieces of human jaw and patella." "In another grave I found an apparently separated arm, superfluous loose hand." [Flinders Petrie, `Hyksos and Israelite Cities', (London, 1906), pp. 12f]

The domination of the Amu-Hyksos was not confined to Egypt. Scarabs have been found in various countries, with the names of King Apop and Khian. The name of Khian/Khyan is engraved on a sphinx discovered in Baghdad and on a jar lid at Knossos in Crete. An inscription of Apop says "his father Seth, lord of Auaris, had set all foreign countries under his feet." In Auaris was the sacrarium of the god Seth, whom the Hyksos had introduced in the Egyptian Pantheon. The finding in distant countries of objects bearing the names of Apop and Khian seems to prove that Apop's words were no vain boast. Some historians found themselves compelled to believe that the Hyksos, if only for a transient period, commanded a very great empire.

The Ancient Israelites

In revised view evidence for the ancient Israelites is quite different than current books dealing with this period in time. We just want to mention some artifacts which, reinterpreted, give us a clue to the contributions of revised chronology. Currently, when artifacts in Palestinian or neighboring sites are found during excavations, which can be directly or indirectly attributed to early 18th Dynasty pharaohs, they are generally called Canaanite. But we show reasons to place these same 18th Dynasty kings into the time of the early Israelite monarchy and here is what happens to certain artifacts, they become associated with Israelites rather than Canaanites.
A flat bronze figure of a dignitary or priest wearing what appears to be a prayer shawl was found at Hazor. Even though it has Egyptian characteristics in its art, we believe that this style was the prevalent artform for many Hebrew artists too, some of which learned their trade in Egypt during their years in that country. The marriage of Solomon to an Egyptian princess for instance must have brought on besides exchanging of gifts, also an exchange of artists, craftsmen and merchants.
Solomon traded widely buying horses from Egypt and selling them to the Syrians. In his days Ugarit and the Minoan Island of Crete were already productive societies and he received their products as King of Israel and, if our identification of Senmut is correct, in his capacity as Senmut. We may compare the vessels in this tomb painting with those from the Jerusalem booty of Thutmose III at Karnak and look for similarities. [See inserts] While not exactly alike the general types of vessels are found in either representation. The `pillar' shaped handles are well known to archaeologists and remind us of the several times pillars are mentioned in the scriptures during this time. [1.Kings 7; 2.Kings 25; 2.Chronicles 3;4]
This wall painting in Sobekhotep's tomb, Thebes, from the time of Thutmose IV features Karnak comparison Syrians/Hebrews bringing ornate chalices, some with lotus flower motifs, a rhyton and oil horn. Again, we may compare these with the Karnak loot of the time of Thutmose III and look for similarities. While not exactly alike, the general types are represented in both Egyptian sources. We can see from this that there is no gross inconsistency in time and workmanship.
The Chronology of the Period of the Judges
Israel under the Judges Suggested dates Approximate Egyptian Parallels
Exodus ca. -1445 End of 12th Dynasty, Start of the early Hyksos rulers of the 13th Dynasty princes and officials
Invasion of Canaan ca. -1405 Early Hyksos rulers of the 13th Dynasty princes and officials
Israel under Joshua and the elders 1405-1364 13th Dynasty
Othniel's liberation from Chushanrishataim's 8 yr oppression 1356 13th Dynasty
Rest of 40 years 1356-1316 13th Dynasty
Ehud's liberation from 18 yrs of Moabite oppression 1298 13th Dynasty
80 years of rest of southern and eastern tribes 1298-1218 13th Dynasty
Deborah and Barak's liberation after Jabin's 20 yrs of oppression in the north 1258 13th Dynasty
Rest in the north 1211-1171 14th-15th Dynasty
Gideon's liberation from the 7 yr Midianite oppression 1211 14th-15th Dynasty Hyksos rulers
Gideon's rule 1211-1171 16th Dynasty
Abimelech's kingship over Shechem 1171-1168 16th Dynasty Hyksos rulers
Tola, Jair, Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, Abdon's rule 1168-1074 17th Dynasty
Beginning of Philistine oppression 1119 17th Dynasty Hyksos rulers
Samson's desparate exploits 1101-1081 17th Dynasty
Ark taken by the Philistines, Eli's death 1099 17th Dynasty
Battle at Ebenezer, Philistines defeated 1079 17th Dynasty
Samuel judges Israel; -1012 Saul defeats Amalekites at Avaris, death of Apop II. 1079-1050 End of the 17th Dynasty, Apepi II.; -1012 Rise of the 18th Dynasty
Notes and References

[01] Did the ancient Egyptians have camels? Esarhaddon mentions camels in his annals, Ancient Records of Assyria, Sec. 551, as tribute to be paid by Hazael, king of Arabia,; Sec. 558, "the camels which all of the kings of Arabia had brought";. Some thought that the Egyptian kamaair, kamari or kaari, kari = camel?`kamaair or kaari' signified camel(s). First Papyrus Anastasi, where the traveler or Egyptian officer (mohar) seems to ask for the flesh of the camel to eat, "pa ta kamaair mahair en amu", `Give the flesh of camel to the Mohar to eat.' PSBA, Nov. 1889, p. 82ff.

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