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Partial List of Crusader Castles
Belvoir castle of the Hospitaller knights; Syria's Krak des Chevaliers; Castle of Kerak, Jordan; Nimrod's Castle in the Golan Heights; Qalat Rahba in Syria; Castle of St. Louis in Sidon, Lebanon[01]; Lake Tiberias/Galilee crusader castle found. A photo of the site and a painted version of the castle is provided.[02]
[01] `Archaeology', Sep/Oct 2002.
[02] BAR, Vol. 30, May/Jun 2004, p. 16.
The Egyptian cubit = 1.72 feet long.
Cuneiform
Spoken cuneiform employs several categories written as: 1. dentals: d, t(emphatic); 2. velars: g, k, q; 3. labials: b, p; 4. sibilants: s, sh, z(emphatic s); For images see National Geographic Society, Splendors of the Past Lost Cities of the Ancient World, 1981, on numerous pages;
Dangeil
A recently discovered ca. 2000 year old city in Sudan, ancient Nubia.
Dashur
Dashur was a 4th (Snofru) and 12th dynasty capital which was more recently disocovered by archaeologists from Japan. Dashur is located south of Saqqara and Memphis, ca. 2 km north of the Red Pyramid of Sneferu. Evidence from the area included fragments bearing the name of Pharaoh Tut-ankh-amon and Akhesenamen. The location where these items were found was in the tombs surrounding that of Ipay. Also discovered were the tomb of Ipay, and scarabs bearing the name of Ramses II and a relief fragments bearing the name of Horemheb. A Japanese Waseda University team discovered what they describe as the New Kingdom part of town consisting mainly of a cemetery where they noticed the foundation of a centrally located, large mud-brick tomb-chapel which they dated to the late 18 Dynasty.
King David's palace
What did it look like? (1.Kings 7:1-12) It was made of cedar wood, 1.Chr. 17:1. It was built by Hiram, 2.Sam. 5:11; 1.Chr. 14:1 and most likely built in Phoenician, bit-hilani, style. Examples of that are known from the acropolis of Zincirli, Turkey. [BAR, Jan/Feb 1997, p. 50] Newer information seeks to address where the Palace of King David was located based on 2.Sam 5:7,17 which describes `David of going down, or descending (yered), from his residence to the citadel or fortress.' See Eilat Mazar, Did I Find King David's Palace?' in BAR, Jan/Feb 2006, p. 16-27,70.
Deborah's Song - Judges chapter 5
Is Deborah describing a war in which Thutmose III participated? According to professor Anson F. Rainey [BAR], Thutmose III participated in a coalition war, referred to in the `Song of Deboarh' even though a king of Egypt is not mentioned but `Amalek' is. We have already shown that the Amalekites were the Hyksos invaders of Egypt a long ways away from the time of Thutmose III. Who these kings were of the coalition we do not know. If Egyptians participated they were troops commandeered by Hyksos rulers. This is in line with the Hyksos being associated with numerous Canaanite tribes later overcome by King Saul and David.
Democracy
From where originate the first, basic democratic principles? The city of Athens is heralded as the cradle of democratic ideals. Evidence for that were found by archaeologists in a building at the north-east corner of the Agora near a clay bin which may have been a ballot box. The finds included bronze wheels used as public ballots: The somewhat mythical figure of Aristotle is credited with telling us that those with solid axles were for acquittal, those with hollow for condemnation, and the voter could conceal his vote by holding the axle between his fingertips. For more information and images see `The Oxford Illustrated History of Greece and the Helenistic World', Oxford, 1988, p. 134. Emphasis ours.
Diorite, Giza and a Paved Road
Diabase/Diorite/Basalt is an intrusive igneous, granular rock. Many rocks originally called diorite are now called something else, i.e. diabase. Quartzite diorite is now tonalite. A very hard rock, types of which are also used in Egyptian statuary. Also look up `dolerite', English variation on same material but diorite and basalt are very different stones. While the pyramids themselves were built of limestone and granite the floor of an adjoining mortuary temple was built of black basalt. (Geologists will state that there exists no `black' granite.) "The basalt came from quarries that lie 40 miles southwest of Giza. The Egyptians did not attempt to drag three-ton blocks of basalt across 40 miles of desert... . Instead they dragged the blocks to a lake connected to the Nile, loaded them on barges, and floated them down to Giza - a circuitous journey of more than 100 miles, but one that saved a lot of dragging. The road to the lake ... was only seven and a half miles long." It may be the world's oldest paved road. In 1987 Thomas Bown and James Harrell discovered the basalt quarries and a camp to house the quarry workers. By pottery fragments the site was dated to the Old Kingdom period. A microscopic analysis of the basalt at Giza and at the nearby necropolis of Saqqara showed that both came from this quarry. "The construction of the quarry road is somewhat less impressive than that of the pyramids. "They didn't bother to make a road bed," says Bown. "There were no signs of leveling of the road in any place." The pavement consists of sandstone, limestone, basalt, and, in one section, petrified wood. The road builders took whatever rock was at hand, picked out the largest straight-edged pieces to form the borders of the road, and filled the middle with smaller pieces. In one respect, though, they displayed some of the precision that went into the pyramids: in sections that haven't eroded, the road is exactly four ancient Egyptian cubits wide (just under 7 feet).
Today the road leads nowhere, beginning at the quarries and ending at an ancient quay - a quay that now stands high and dry, about six miles from the banks of a lake called Birket Qarun. When the quay was built, however, it stood on the shore of Lake Moeris/Faiyum, a much larger body of water that was connected to the Nile during the annual summer flood. The road to the quay included uphill segments - which may explain why it is the only paved road known from ancient Egypt: the routes from other Egyptian quarries, says, Bown, led downhill or over flat terrain. ... "The combination of the incline plus the very soft sand they'd have to be dragging the blocks through was just too much," Bown says. "They needed a much harder surface." [`The Road to Giza" in Discover, August 1994, p. 20; Also features an image of the road from the quarries as it disappears in the distance. For more click Here.] In another place we read that the road was noticed by a geologist in 1905 but not mapped until recently. We also learn that Lake Moeris was once connected to the Nile via a gap in the hills near the modern villages of el-Lahun and Hawara. [`World's Oldest Road' in Archaeology, Vol. 48, Jan/Feb 1995, p. 17; The short article provides a color image of a small section of the road showing flat, irregular slabs.] Dolerite is also used as a synonym for `ciabase' in the USA and commonly known as `traprock'.
The Great Divide
Traveling through the Great Canadian Rocky Mountains passenger trains used to stop at a place called, `The Great Divide'. The passengers would step out of the train and expect to see some great site only to be disappointed for all that was there to be seen was a little stream and a rock upon which it came causing some of the water to trickle toward the eastern canyons, past lonely barren lands in the north to the Arctic Sea, and the frozen ocean about the North Pole, while the other part flowed toward the right on its way to the west, down the great Fraser River to the Pacific Ocean.
Djed-Khensu-iw-ef-`ankh
What is known about Djed-Khensu-iw-ef-`ankh? Evidence for `Djed' includes a few amulets and pieces of jewelry which were found on the mummy of Shoshenk II. A beautiful bracelet bearing the name of `Djed' was one of seven discovered on the mummy of king Shoshenq II. One of the other bracelets bore the name of Thutmose III. See: Shoshenq 2 If true that a bracelet bearing the name of Thutmoses III was found on the mummy of Sheshonq II, that would be a welcome piece of information considering that the 18th Dynasty just preceded the 22nd in our revision. [Ziegler,`Tanis catalogue', (AFAA 1987:262-3)]
The Edinburgh, Scotland, Catalogue, `Gold of the Pharaohs', 1988.
Others say, "These Tanis burials are full of names because they abound with `recycled' items, some taken from previous interments, even royal ones, like that of King Merneptah of the late 19th Dynasty. In fact, there appears to be evidence that a heart scarab on a golden chain, belonging to general `Wendjebaendjed' may be that of a Rameside king because it says on it: `The heart of the king Usermaatre, justified, belongs to him in the house of hearts, etc.' Although the catalogue maintains it is the only royal heart scarab we have dating from the 19th or 20th Dynasty (conventional dating), someone saw the heart scarab of Seti I advertised by an antiquities dealer in `Minerva Magazine' some years ago."
There exists also a legs missing cube statue of a man with the name
Djedptahiuefankh the son of Nefer-renpet in the Egyptian collection of the Archaeological Museum Zagreb (Croatia). This one I believe according to a formula in the text belongs to the Saite period. [Igor Uranic, Curator of Egyptian Dep., Arcaeological Museum Zagreb]
On Sheshonq II was also found a pectoral from his predecessor, with the title, `Great Chief of the Meshwesh, son of Nimlot'. Still another bracelet is interesting because it has, at its center, a Mesopotamien cylinder seal of lapis lazuli, inscribed with figures and partially obliterated letters, of which are left `NI' or `DU, LUM'.
Rare or Hard to Find Documents
We hope to publish here or be able to help you find rare or hard to find documents on the world wide web on ancient studies. Of course we cannot have everything but we primarily focus on chronological helpful documents. These will be published for the most part under the selection `Submenu'.
Coffin Dockets
For the text of a coffin docket involving Siamon and Neferhotep click Here!
`To butcher a donkey'
According to historians the phrase `to butcher a donkey' known from Mari correspondence was synonymous for making a treaty. Treaty negotiations were concluded with the sacrifice of donkeys, which were interred within round pits in front of the temple. Similar pits were found at Tell el Daba, Tel Haror and Nahal Gerar.
Dynasty 24
The conventional account of the 24th Nubian Dynasty included: 1. Tefnakht (8 yrs?), king of Sais, contemporary of Osorken IV (Tanis), Peftjauabastet (Herakleopolis), Nimlot (Hermopolis), and Iuput (Leontopolis); 2. Bakenrenef (Greek: Bocchoris) (6 yrs?). Tefnakht and his northern allies fought the Nubian Piankhi (Piyi) Menkheperre (conv. dates 747-716) and had to retreat back to Hermopolis. Piankhi is counted as a member of the 25th Dynasty along with Shabaka Neferkare, Shebitku Djedkare, Taharqa Nefertemkhure and Tanutamun Bakare. Piankhi's Victory Stela measures 180 cm in height and 184 cm in width. It contains 159 lines of hieroglyphic text.
According to some older information on sarcophagus No. 41, Berlin Museum, a `Bakenrenef' had a son by the name of `Anx-Hor-pen' whose mothers name was `Ast-resau-tu' said to be of the time of the Saitic dynasty. [Proceedings of the Society of Biblical History', May/June 1886]
Dynasty 25
The rulers of the 25th, Nubian Dynasty (ca. 747-656 BC) were: Pianki, Shabaka*), Shebitku, Tirhaka, Tanutamun. Their capital of Napata has never been found. See also D.T. Mininberg, `A 25th Dynasty Vehicular Accident' in KMT, Vol. 11, Fall 2000, p. 60-66. A 25th Dynasty intrusive burial in a Middle Kingdom tomb.
More recently in the Assyrian, cuneiform `Tang I Var' inscription the name of `Melluha', interpreted to mean Kush/Ethiopia, and the personal name of `Aapataku/ (var. Ša-pa-ta-ku)', interpreted to be `Shabaka' was discussed. The Tang I Var inscription reads: "The king of Meluhha who [lives] in [a distant country], in an unapproachable region, the road [to which is ...], whose fathers never - from remote days until now - had sent messengers to inquire after the health of my royal forefathers, he did hear, even (that) far away, of the might of Ashur, Nebo (and) Marduk. The awe-inspiring glamour of my kingship blinded him and terror overcame him. He threw him (i.e. Iamani) in fetters, shackles and iron hands, and they brought him to Assyria, a long journey." [ANET, 286]
*) A small granite head of probably Shabako can be seen in KMT, Spring 2001, p. 31; and a map of the Nubian tombs in KMT, Summer 2003, p. 54. For a discussion in German of the stone plate BM 498 and its label of `Shabaqo' see Rolf Krauss, `Wie Jung ist die Memphitische Philosophie auf dem Shaqao-Stein' in Gold of Praise, 1999, p. 239-246. In essence the article concludes that no old Egyptian texts exist which would let one conclude that Egyptians had a tradition of `nature - philosophical studies (naturkundlich-Philosophischen Inhalts)' by the time of this stone tablet.
The Eber Papyrus
The Ebers Papyrus is regarded by some as providing the Sothic fixed point for the start of the 18th Dynasty in 1517 BC. As defenders of the views of Peter James already pointed out, this papyrus does not actually contain a calendar date and is useless for any calculations.
A list of Papyrologists.
Egyptology
Egyptology is the study of the history of Egypt, in particular the study of ancient Egypt. Today's Egyptologists are highly trained in their field of study but often shy away from looking at the issues from a scriptural viewpoint. At this website we show evidence that they represent the alternate school of historians. An alternate discipline talks about history the way it did not happen.
Electrum
Electrum was a mixture of molten gold and silver of unknown proportions. This alloy was used in Egypt as well as Palestine.
Elephantine Island
Elephantine Island/Syene was were the pharaohs used to assemble their armies when setting out for campaigns presumably mostly into Nubia and the deserts. [L. Canfora, `Vanished Library', p. 72, 73]
Elisha the Prophet
A little known detail of the life of the prophet Elisha may be that the Bible seems to indicate that he was a very traveled man who might have spent time in Egypt. "As the Lord our God lives, there is no nation or kingdom to which my lord [Ahab] has not sent to seek you; and when they would say, `He is not here', he would require an oath of the kingdom or nation, that they had not found you."[1.Kings 18:10] After destroying the prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel, Elisha fled into the wilderness to escape the wreath of Jezebel. He went to the east of the River Jordan, and then down to or toward Mount Sinai (we think now probably Jebel al Lawz opposite Nuweiba Beach) in the Arabian Mountains [2.Kings 2:8-11], a distance of a little less than 500 kilometers counting from Haifa, Mt. Carmel, a distance Elijah certainly could cover with 40 days and nights coming from Beth Sheeba, south of Jerusalem, 1.Kings 19:8. Its seems he did just what later Mary and Joseph did with the baby Jesus, fleeing for safety to Egypt. There might be a connection between Elisha and the Egyptian seer Amenhotep, son of Hapu.
The Bible does not seem to mention the ancestors of Elisha. In some of these cases, like with Melchizedek, who we believe was the son of Shem, and with Job, whose lineage is detailed in the Book of Tobit, the Hebrew scribes have recorded the lineage of such famous persons elsewhere. It is possible that Elisha was the same person as the seer, Jehu, son of the illustrious seer, Hanani, whom king Asa of Judah had so ungraciously put "in the stocks, in prison". [2.Chronicles 16:10]
Emeralds (Roman: smaragdi) in Ancient Egypt
The characteristic color of Egyptian or Ethiopian emerald stone is bright green. The Roman author Pliny wrote: "I have seen Lollia Paulina, who became the consort of Gaius [Caligula 37-41 AD] ... covered with emeralds and pearls interlaced and alternately shining all over her head, hair, ears, neck and fingers, the sum total amounting to the value of 40,000,000 sesterces." [Archaeology, May/June 2002, p. 36; Featured is the `Floating Palace Ship' of Caligula which he used in the serene looking, small volcanic Lake `Nemi' in the `Albaner Volcanic Mtn., just south of Rome.
The names of the seven `hills' of Rome are: Capitoline, Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Palatine, Caelian, Aventine. BA, June 1978, p. 57.] There's at least one emerald left: a scarab mounted as a ring, according to : SLIWA, Joachim, A group of Egyptian signet-rings from the former Czartoryski/Dzialynski Collection at Goluchów, REE 3 (1992), 73-77. (see in the Annual Egytological Bibliography for 1992, nr. 92.0846). Eypt's emerald city in Wadi Sikait is located in the eastern desert, the mountainous land between the Nile and the Red Sea.
En-Gedi
Located on the western shore of the Dead Sea in the days of Abraham there seemed to have been there a thriving civilization. En-Gedi was excavated and 3 major periods of settlements were found:
1. The Roman period; 2. The Kingdom of Israel period; and more importantly 3. during the `Chalcolithic' period of Palestine - the largest and most prolific settlement. Caves in the surrounding steep and rocky hills yielded signs of having been inhabited in the Chalcolithic period (4th millenium BCE) and deep occupation layers, mainly of ash and refuse, were found, including many artifacts: crude hand-made clay vessels decorated with red paint, typical of the period; globular stone grinding and pounding vessels; flint implements used for cutting and as arrowheads; bone implements such as awls; and necklaces of shell, bone and semi-precious stones. Portions of a loom built of wooden beams, stone and clay loom weights, spatulas showing signs of use, spindle whorls, and cloth pieces of woven linen and wool were found, as well as wooden artifacts, strainers, portions of straw mats, ropes and basketry and even part of a leather garment and the sole of a sandal. The botanical finds attest to the food of the inhabitants of the cave: wheat and barley, lentils, olives and dates. Faunal remains include bones of sheep and goats, hunted animals such as deer and ibex, and a variety of birds. In this cave and in the one next to it, burials of men, women and children, placed in pits with pottery vessels, were uncovered. If these finds could relate to people hiding in these caves during times of war is not addressed. [From:http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Early%20History%20-%20Archaeology/Cave%20of%20the%20Treasure%20-%20A%20Hoard%20of%20Metal%20Objects%20fr]
[Osgood, John, `Times of Abraham', p. 181; Genesis 14; 2.Chronicles 20:2; For an aerial view photo of the site of Ein-Gedi see BAR, Vol. 19, Jul/Aug 1993, p. 38; On page 41 photos of 2 other sites are shown: 1. Middin (Khirbet Mazin), and 2. Nibshan (Ein el-Ghuweir); Joshua 15:61-62; On page 42 we see `The City of of Salt', Pesach Bar-Adon, Joshua 15:61-62.]
See also Thomas E. Levy, `The Chalcolithic Period' in BA, Vol. 49, Jun 1986, p. 82-108.; Includes maps.
Chalcolithic Sites or regions: 1) the site of Teleilat el-Ghassul (east of Jericho: basalt bowls, perforated ivory rods (BASOR, Aug 2000), 2) Golan Heights, 3) Sharon Coastal Plain, 4) Samarian Highlands, 5) Jezreel/Beth Shean Valley, 6) Jordan Valley/Ammon Plateau, 7) Judean Desert, 8) Gilat, just NW of Beer Sheva, 9) Negeb/Sinai Coastal Plain, 10) Nahar Gerar, 11) Nahal Patish, 12) Nahal Beersheba, 13) Dothan, 14) the southern Sinai peninsula, 15) Tell Far'ah north, 16) Tell Abu Matar, 17) Bir es Safedi, 18) Horvat Beter, 19) Shiqmim, 20) Nahal Mishmar Cave of Copper Treasures, 21) Tell Umm Hamad esh-Sherqi, located at the southern tip of that part of the Ghor of the Jordan Valley, which is north of the confluence of the Jordan and Jabbok Rivers.[Nelson Glueck, A Chalcolithic Settlement in the Jordan Valley in BASOR, Vol. 97, Feb 1945, p. 10-22 & `Some Chalcolithic Sites in Northern Gilead', Dec 1946, p. 12-20.]
Articles on the Chalcolithic Age: En-Gedi
[010] Early Modern Humans in Near Eastern Archaeology, Mar 2001; Site of the `Gilat Woman'. Ceramics at Gilat, situated within a large settlement, are said to primarily have originated from the northern Negev with only limited quantities from the Judean Hills. In contrast, the temple excavated at the shrine site of En Gedi contained ceramics originating in the Judean Hills, while some of the hoard of artifacts found in the cave at nearby Nahal Mishmar originated in the northern Negev, Judean Hills, and Transjordan (Goren, 1955). Ein Gedi, like Gilat, is considered to be a type site for Chalcolithic religion and culture. At Gilat a wide variety of non-ceramic items were found, including violin shaped figurines, stone palettes, fenestrated stands, and numerous massevot or standing stones. At En Gedi there were few non-ceramic finds beyond the base of an alabaster vessel, some beads, and a ceramic bull bearing two churns, the closest parallel to the Gilat Woman's zoomorphic companion. The En-Gedi Temple probably served an organized cult, with a different set of cultic concerns than that at Gilat. These concerns included a more formal spatial relationship between "worshippers" and the various architectural installations, such as an enclosed courtyard, a broadroom and an altar, which implies an emphasis on the burning and disposal of offerings, most likely presented in the tremendous number of vessels found in the main structure. The stone altar in the broadroom may have supported a cult statue, or even represented the deity, in the manner of a massevah or standing stone.
At length the article continues and eventually states: `At best we may suggest that each major Chalcolithic site was presided over by a group of religio-political specialists. These specialists are more apparent in the larger sites such as Ghassul and some sites of the Beersheva basin, while at smaller sites, which make up the vast majority of Chalcolithic settlements, their presence is unknown. These specialists, however, had only limited power and authority. The elites at the major centers of Chalcolithic settlements, the Beersheva basin and Ghassul, and perhaps the central Jordan valley, elaborated on preexisting features of agro-pastoral organization and belief, but their innovations were limited.'
Disregarding the authors preconceived age assignments in an effort to connect peoples and cultures to the long taught, yet erroneous Neanderthal like Stone Age, does this sound like conditions during the Age of the Patriarchs?
[Ibid., p. 13-15, 17.]
In a Chalcolithic context the life of Abraham and the patriarchs may be described as a chiefdom.
Neolithic sites include: Jericho, Ard Tlaili, Byblos, Beqa Valley; Negev sites: Qatif, Wadi Ghazzeh; the neolithic village of Beidah (inside Jordan) [Professor Ofer Bar-Yosef in The Mysteries of the Ancient World, Nat. Geogr. 1985, p. 34.]; Supposed Neolithic sites inside the country of Jordan Ain Ghazal, Sha ar ha-Golan, Munhata, Basta, Tabaqat al-Buma. [E.B. Banning, The Neolithic Period in NEA, Dec. 1998, p. 188-237.
Epicurius
Epicurius (341-271 BC) was a uniformitarian naturalist by his own philosophical persuasion. He thought up ideas by which he hoped to make it easier to live this life and be responsible to no one. In particular he wanted to undo dependence on the gods, expecting that not to worry about gods, the immortal soul and the after life, would give man real freedom. His idea of gods was very Greek. For him the gods were little more than a step higher beings than humans. He was still influenced by the notion that gods were sort of tyrants and he did not want to have to look out for them, offer them sacrifices or going to their temples. Even though an Epicurean is looking for a type of salvation, he defines it differently according to his terms. By studying nature an Epicurean tried to discover not so much truth as he tried to produce and maintain a condition of mind, a state of being undisturbed (athoraxia) and untroubled (pestistebios). However, if such notions reflect reality or truth begs the question. His fear of nature and his wondering if events could be tamed or domesticated, was not answered. Epicurians sought answers by a) careful scrutiny, b) rational analysis, c) the removal of unnecessary factors, d) hoping to be able to tame fears, e) building a stoical system to manage fears. - The Epicurean World View says, `The totality of things has always been just like it is now and always will be so.' How does he know that is so? He doesn't know. He has no scientific evidence and no basis for it. He asserts it but he cannot defend it. He gives us the eternality of matter, but he lived before modern science. Nevertheless, some of his views were taken up uncritically across many centuries and millennia, whether they were defensible or not. Epicurius spoke of 1) the eternality of nature, 2) the plurality of worlds - which in its final analysis amounts to a statement of faith. The Greekness or humanness of his gods reveals itself by his view that, `If the gods were the caretakers of the universe, or if they were in control of nature and human affairs, these would be burdensome service for the gods.' The essence of Epicurean theology was the subordination of the gods to nature, so that it could not interfere in human affairs. Edging up to the Roman Empire, the Epicurians learned that the Romans allowed any number of gods and temples. You could even look religious as long as you did not say anything in a public square that demands change. As long as you don't move onto the private sphere of the public world. While the gods could be used to justify about anything, everything needed to be subordinate to the natural inclinations of man. So, ultimately man is in control. That is why this type of philosophy is the epitome of false thinking and willing ignorance of the power of God to accommodate selfish goals.
Epidaurus
The fame of Epidaurus [Map] in Greek history derives from the cultic, mythical person of Asklepios. Located at the foot of Kyrnortion, the monumental history goes back to only the 4th century BC. Today one can see the ruins of a theater and shrines.
Ephorus
Ephorus was a Greek author on history whose works were consulted by Diodorus of Sicily in his writing of `Bibliotheca Historica'.
The Famine Stele
The `Famine Stele' was found on the island of Sehel located near the Island of Elephantine. The Brooklyn Museum has an image of it.
Fort or Fortress(es)
Numerous references to `fort', `fortress', `palace fort' are included here:
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, palace fort.
Benjamin Franklin
As the story goes, when Benjamin Franklin was the American ambassador to Paris in the days of the French Revolution, everyone tried to be a `learned' person. There were all sorts of societies, many of them literary, and Franklin joined one of them. It was their custom to choose someone to write a story to be read to the society, and then they would debate its merits and criticize it. Franklin waited for the day when his turn would come. When the date was announced, he went home and copied the Book of Ruth from the French version of the Bible. When he stood there before the society he began to read with his sweet, warm, and earnest voice that inimitable story - the wonderful love story of Ruth. When he had finished there was great silence for a moment. Then someone began to applaud, and the whole audience broke into enthusiastic applause. After the chairman finally calmed them, he said: "Mr. Franklin, that is the greatest love story that has ever been written, so far as I know. This society requests your permission to have it printed and made available to the world." Franklin got up and bowed, and said: "I am sorry, but I cannot give that permission because this story, this book, has already been printed and given to the world." "Where? Why did we never hear of it before?" "Oh," he said, "because it is in the book called the Bible, which you despise, and about which you know so little."
User Friendly
The California Institute for Ancient Studies is trying to make its website user friendly in the sense that we are not too technical in writing up our pages as compared to how Egyptologists might write. We also will occasionally give information designed to help in geographical orientation by giving distances and compass directions. We do this for our young readers who are just learning about these issues. Please go to `FAQ' or send us an e-mail for additional pointers and input.
City of Gath
The ancient city of Gath, Tel es-Safi, was in Philistine territory and features in the account of the birth place of Goliath and the Philistines having captured the Ark of the Covenant and the subsequent detrimental events to their well being as told in 1.Samuel 17ff and mapped in BAR, Vol. 27, Nov/Dec 2001, p. 24. [The article shows many treasures found in Tel es-Safi.] It is also the location given as the find spot of a sherd bearing the name of King Narmer. [MacDonald in AJBA, 1972, p. 74.;S.Yeuvin in JESHO (Journal of Econ. & Soc. Hist. of the Orient), 6. 1963, 1.] One of the kings of Philistine Gath was Achish, the Son of Maoch (1.Samuel 27:2). The subject of the Philistines comes up in various places on this website but especially in the paper on Ramses III. "Hazael of Damascus, meanwhile, continued his depredations against the divided kingdom, unchecked by Assyrian restraints. The death of Jehu in 814/813 enabled Hazael to march through the length and breath of Palestine in order to capture Gath, 2.Kings 12:18."[W.W. Hallo, `From Qarqar to Carchemish' in BA, Feb 1960, p. 42]. The reason Hazael could operate unhindered from the Assyrians was probably that Hazael is the alter ego of Ashuruballit himself, just as we showed that Ben Hadad was Ashurnasirpal.
Genomics
For those of you who don't know it Johnny is also a member of the Nature Publishing Group which disseminates research papers and information dealing with genome (gene sequencing) research. For a view visit: Nature.com Genomics CD-Rom.
Goat People
Thomas Newton explained the origin of the word "Ægeadæ", or `the goat's people' as told by ancient authors as follows: "Caranus, their first king, going with a great multitude of Greeks to seek new habitations in Macedonia, was commanded by the oracle to take the goats for his guides to empire: and afterwards seeing a herd of goats flying from a violent storm, he followed them to Edessa, and there fixed the seat of his empire, made the goats his ensigns or standards, and called the city Ægæ, or the `goat's town'. ... This city became the usual burying place of the Macedonian kings." [Thomas Newton, `Dissertations on the Prophecies', Vol. I, pp. 303, 304]
Goats are for a long time domesticated animals and sculptures of them appeared already in Sumerian times in the ancient city of Ur. It was Leonard Wooley who found a detailed, decorated goat standing on its hind legs in the tomb of a local ruler. [BAR, Sep/Oct 1984, p. 58]
Gold
Gold is our earth's and history's chief metal. Where did all the ancient gold disappear too? King David took from the Mesopotamien kings large amounts of gold, brought it to Jerusalem, from where it was taken by Thutmoses III and incorporated into their various projects. The gold of Babylon passed on to Medo-Persia. Then Alexander captured it. It took his army a whole month just to pick up the loot of the battle. Every man took all he could carry, but there was still sufficient left for other looters for years to come. That gold came this way to Greece and from there to Rome. It took Alaric the Great three days to gather up all the gold in Rome. But he made a mistake and pushed his fortunes too far. When he led his army into southern Italy he died suddenly. They buried him a few days later by apparently diverting a river and making his grave chamber underneath the river bed where they buried him with vast amounts of gold. Then these evil men turned the river back and killed all the slaves who had done the work, so that only three men knew the secret where the treasure was. No one knows today.
Gold metal refining buildings were found at Pactolus North, near the Gygean Lake, near Sardis, Turkey. See George Hanfmann & Jane Waldbaum, The 11th & 12th Campaigns at Sardis in BASOR, Oct 1970, p. 7-58.
Halicarnassus
Home town of the Greek historian Herodotus located in the southwestern corner of Asia Minor, today's Turkey.
Wadi Hammamat
"Over the last 5,000 years the mountains of the Eastern Desert have become desiccated and the wells bone dry. As a result, few Egyptologists have ventured into this harsh terrain. However, two hardy souls deserve mention because they were the first to find what we ourselves had come to record.
In March 1908 British Egyptologist Arthur Weigall visited Kanais temple. He arrived by camel and spent a couple of nights camped in the ruins of a Roman fortress. In his book Travels in the Upper Egyptian Deserts he mentions the discovery of early rock-art carved on the cliffs and boulders nearby. Weigall published a couple of plates of ink drawings showing boats with high prow and stern, several carrying human figures or animals. This was the first occasion that these amazing Eastern Desert boats were revealed.
Thirty years later (1938?) the German explorer, Hans Winkler, headed off to the Wadi Hammamat region, east of Luxor. He too found examples of the high-prowed boats scattered along the ancient tracks through the mountains. Winkler spent several weeks exploring the area and logged thirty-nine sites and scores of boats. Unfortunately, the final publication of his research was a meager affair with very brief descriptions, a few photographs, a set of ink drawings and a completely inadequate map of the site locations. It was obvious to me that his amazing discovery needed to be properly recorded and published for posterity." [Website information from: www.nunki.net/PerDud/TheWorks/Express/SecretDesert.html]
Harwa
The tomb of Harwa is TT37. He lived at the beginning of the 25th Dynasty and held one of the most important positions of the Divine Adoratrice. The texts engraved on Harwa's statues tell us that he was born in a family of Theban priests. He was a son of the `lady of the house', Nestaureret, and of a priest attached to the temple of Amon of Karnak, Padimut son of Ankhefenamon. Harwa also held the position of Grand Steward for about 40 years from the time of Piankhy, serving under Nubian pharaohs Shabaqa (713 - 698 BC) and Shebitqa (698 - 690 BC), until the reign of Taharqa (690 - 664 BC). It was during this last reign that Harwa must have began his funerary monument.
Haramassi
Some have tried to make a `Haramassi mentioned in the El Amarna letters into Harmais, the brother of Sethos, and mentioned by Josephus [quoting Manetho], into Horemheb. The relevant passages read as follows:
Tusratta to Amenophis III, No. 4
"To Nimmuria, king of Egypt, my brother, my son-in-law, whom I love, who loves me, say. Thus says Tusratta, king of Mitanni, thy father-in-law, who loves thee, thy brother: ...
Verily, Haramassi, whom my brother has sent me, I have sent, and have delivered into his hand a tablet. Let my brother and let him listen to its words, and ..... read the decision, I have sent Haramassi to my brother, because ..."[EA#20 p. 75; Mercer ed.;
According to Mercer, Haramassi was an Egyptian messenger also known by the names of `Haamaassi', `Haamassi' and `Hamaassa'. But these name associations are unproven and just a hunch on the part of Mercer.]
In the speculative opinion of some historians `Haramassi' was `Hormose' and Manetho confused this name and rendered it `Harmais'. What this `Hormose/Haramassi' did outside of being mentioned in the El Amarna letter cited we know nothing about.
Hebrew tablets
We all have seen and/or heard of clay tablets with writing on them. It is not uncommon to find potsherds in Palestine displaying Hebrew writing. One such example can be seen in `Biblical Archaeology Review', May/June 2002, p. 44 where a potsherd found at Izbet Sartah contains 80 crudely written letters as an abcedary written from left to right. However, clay tablets with Hebrew writing, do they exist? Amazingly enough clay tablets or any other specific writing surfaces are hardly mentioned in the Old Testament after the days of Moses. A reference to the `reeds (hebr. `kaneh') of the Nile' are found in Isaiah 19:6-7. While the word `write' occurs frequently it is usually followed by `in a book' or `a letter', omitting to state if it was a series of tablets, a parchment, or papyrus pages which were used as writing surfaces. However, most seem to have concluded that Hebrew characters lend themselves best to be written on papyrus pages and that is why we find preserved very little ancient Hebrew writing in Israel. In a way that may be a disadvantage, in another, it was the reason that scribes continually transcribed the biblical books according to very strict rules ensuring the basically unchanged contents of its biblical books.
Hebrew grammar:
Hebrew was usually written verb first, followed in order with pronoun and objects (direct or indirect), noun subject, and noun object. Example: `waytsaw yosef eth'-avadayw eth-harofi'm lahonet eth-'aviyw', which literally stands for `And-commanded-he Joseph servants-his, physicians-his to-embalm father-his." Hebrew has no tense in verbs, i.e. `I go', 'I went', `I had gone', `I am going', `I will go'. For this reason time in Hebrew sentences is not clear. While we all heard of the Dead Sea scrolls, we are thinking more of writing surfaces from the period of the kings. The Elephantine papyri go back further in time but were found in Egypt. Many enemies destroyed Hebrew texts during their frequent wars on Israel.
Hebrew words
In the early part of Genesis are two words translated as `one', "one" - e-chod and yo-chid. The word e-chod is found several times in Genesis 1-2, i.e. Genesis 1:5: "Vaa-ye-he e-rev, vaa-ye-he vou-ker, youm e-chod." There was an evening, and there was a morning, one day.
Herodotus
A Greek born in Asia Minor who wrote the well known `Histories' of ancient Greek times. Evidence that Herodotus visited/spent time in Egypt seems to be verified by the discovery of an inscribed cup reading, "H...dotoy" [N. Reeves, `Ancient Egypt-The Great Discoveries', p. 68]
Heterpheres
Heterpheres was queen mother of the 4th Dynasty king Khufu, her tomb furniture, especially a chair, bears the most exquisite gold inlaid hieroglyphics so far found in Egypt (by George Reisner in 1925).
Hezekiah
A painted image on a 5 x 3 inch sherd found at Ramat Rahel's palace which is located inside Jerusalem, very possibly of the seated King Hezekiah, can be seen in BAR, Vol. 32, No. 5, Sep/Oct 2006, p. 42. The figure was first drawn with a black pen and then outlined in red paint. It shows the bearded king wearing some kind of head cover in a well made, long sleeve, probably girdled tunic with his arms stretched forward. The hands are partially missing and may have held a scepter.
We discuss the history of this king in the following papers: Sargon, Turtan.
An article discussing the historical setting of King Hezekiah, according to conventional chronology, is found at the following website: Biblical Archaeology
Writing in Hieroglyphics
This method of writing was found to utilize 3 major types of signs: 1. logograms, 2. phonograms, and 3. determinatives. Of these the `logograms' and `determinatives' are concerned |