Absalom, son of King David
Absalom tried to capture the throne of his royal father David for himself. At some point in time he had to flee from his father and he fled to Talmai, the king of `the land of Geshur' the land of his mother, a Geshurite princess. [2.Samuel 13:20-38; 3:3] Recently the location of the fortified town where Absalom hid in has been found to have been located just east of the Sea of Galilee and ¼ distance south from to the northernmost end of the Lake opposite of Capernaum at Tel Hadar, `splendid hill'. [BAR, Jul/Aug 1992, p. 30-44]

Achaemenid
The genealogy of the Achaemenid rulers is traced back to Achaemenes their apparent first ruler and founder of the Persian line of kings [Herodotus, Book III, Sec. 75]. From this name the term `Achaemenid' was coined.

The Amu - Speos Artemidos and the Agagites
There exists an important Egyptian inscription by Queen Hatshepsut (~938 - 915 BC):"The abode of the Mistress of Qes was fallen in ruin, the earth has swallowed her beautiful sanctuary and children played over her temple ... I declared and rebuilt it anew ... I restored that which was in ruins, and I completed that which was left unfinished. For there had been Amu in the midst of the Delta and in Hauar (Auaris), and the foreign hordes of their number had destroyed the ancient works; they reigned ignorant of the god Ra."[Inscription at Speos Artemidos located near Akhetaten. W.M. Flinders Petrie, A History of Egypt: During the 17th & 18th Dynasties. It also mentions ".. the dwellers of the marshes" or "the poor men" who must be regarded as the Israelites who left Egypt during the Ten Plagues and the great multitude of Egyptians who accompanied them during the Exodus. Exodus 12:38; The Amu are then the Amalekites.]
The name of the fourth Amalekite king was Agog, or Apop in Egyptian history. Compare Numbers 24:7, 1. Samuel 15:8; tells us that the name of the last king of the Amalekites was also Agog or Agag. Notice also in the Book of Esther 3:1 where Haman is said to be the son of Ham-me-datha the Agagite which is to say he was a descended of the Amalekites. [For more on the hieroglyphic signs of the Speos A. inscription see BAR, Vol. VIII, May/Jun 1982, p. 48-52. For the full, drawn Egyptian text see BA, Jun 1986, p. 71.]

Adad shumur usur, king of Babylonia
The Assyrian king of whom a letter exists addressed to two other kings.
"[To] Ashur-nirari and Ili-Had[da ...], kings of Assyria, speak! [The words of] Adad-shuma-usur, great king, strong king, [king of the universe], king of Karduniash, ... etc." [D.Rohl, `Pharaohs and Kings', p. 394]
There exists also a stele found in 1967 at Tell Rimah[01] which has 12 lines of cuneiform text dealing with a campaign of Adad-nirari (III), in the Mediterranean coastal area. Of particluar interest is the mention of the receipt of tribute from "Ja'asu (Joash(?)) of Samaria", tribute from Mari, and from the rulers of Tyre and Sidon. The year when Joash(?) paid tribute to Adad-nirari (III) is not specifically mentioned. Historians guessed from the eponyms the following possible dates: 804, `against Arqada'; 803, `against Ba'ali'; 802, `against the sea coast'; and 796, `against Mansuate'. If Joash began his reign in -798, he would have paid tribute in ca. -796 - only two years after he took office - in order to oblige Assyria early in his reign. The reason may have been the ruler in Damascus, leader of the resistance against Assyria, and long time archenemy of Israel.
We know from the scriptural account that, during the reign of Jehoahaz, father of and predecessor of Jehoash, "Hazael, king of Syria/Aram oppressed Israel all the days of Jehoahaz". [2.Kings 13:22]
[01] [Stephanie Page, `A Stela of Adad-nirari III and Nergal-eres from Tell al Rimah' in Iraq 30 (1968), p. 139-153, Plates XXXVIII-XLI; and several more sources. The revised sequence goes from: Eriba-Adad > Ashurubalit (I) > Shalmaneser (III) > {Shamshi Adad (III)} > Adad-nirari.]

Adonis River
Located near Byblos at Afqa in the mountains of Lebanon the picturesque Adonis River (Nahr-Ibrahim) emerges out of a cave high up on the cliff of a Yosemite Valley like mountain. According to Lucian, Cinyras was the father of Adonis and the builder of its, in antiquity well known evil temple. An opaque obsidian cylinder first exhibited in December of 1882 features a male figure with a long beard and raised arms before and behind himself is touched by the fore-paws of two lions from either side underneath his raised arms. To the right of this shallow carving is a representative stand with a serious of round buds and leaves, probably supposed to represent stylized arms. To the right the old Hebrew inscription reads `Baal of Aphek', the old Phœnician tutelar idol (of Aphek, Ekron, Hermon, Tyre or Zor), above which appears the crescent moon, a pagan symbol also much used by one modern day church. [Henry C. Reinhardt in PSBA, Nov 1883, p. 16.]

The Wisdom of Ahiqar
An Aramaic, administrative document dated in a regnal year of one of the Achaemenid kings, eithers Xerxes or Artaxerxes I and discovered in Egypt. See our `Resources' links for more.

Alexander Jannaeus
Alexander Jannaeus (103-76 BC) was a Hasmonean king who owned a boat dock, his royal marina, on the shores of the Dead Sea (first mentioned in Genesis 14:3) about 5 km south of Qumran at Khirbet Mazin. The structure was first found in 1970 by Pesach Bar Adon. Estimates are that the sea level during the Second Temple Period was much higher (between -340 to -400 meters), today's level is -417 meters and decreasing at the rate of 0.8 m per year. Visitors found recently at a nearby beach "hundreds of coins in an excellent state of preservation - apparently thanks to the lack of oxygen on the Dead Sea's muddy floor. Sometimes dozens of coins were found together in one area, and sometimes they were simply scattered around." That day 1260 coins were found, all of the anchor and star type minted by the thousands during the reign of Alexander Jannaeus. One side depicts a two hook or arm anchor surrounded by the Greek inscription, `(coin) of Alexander the king'. The other side bears a star, usually with eight arms, which are interspersed with the Hebrew or Aramaic letters spelling `Jonathan the king'. The coins are relatively small, about 2 grams each, with a diameter of 13-18 mm. Since the coins were found in a relatively small area, they probably came from a sunken boat.
Bar Adon suggested that the dock, on the basis of the sherds at its foundations, were built at the end of Iron II (8th-7th cent. BC) and expanded during the reigns of John Hyrcanus I (134-104 BC), but this assessment may not be correct. The dock is one of the most impressive structures in the land of Israel stretching over 1500 square meters. The walls are preserved to a height of 3-4 meters and built of enormous limestones bonded with plaster-mortar and aligned by some small bundles of hewn sandstones. There is 1) a tower (9x18 m, 1.5-2 m thick walls) which, judged by the stones lying around was at least 3-4 stories high. At its base were 6 m deep, underground storerooms and a ~30 cubic meter cistern, 2) a large 36x20 m (exterior) sloped (3m) hall that served as a ship shed with a 4.4 m entrance with still in situ rock hewn doorjambs, 3) a 5 m wide wall flanked slipway for hauling up the boats; it appears the water level fluctuated between -391 to 394 m; 4) and a pier in whose 150 square meter section boats could be docked and cargoe unloaded. [Eretz, No. 83, pp. 38-43]

Algebra
In particular we want to mention the algebra taught by the undocumented Greek mathematician `Pythagoras' who taught reality - from musical tones to the motion of stars - could be reduced to simple ratios expressed in the basic formula: a/b where `a' and `b' would be nice whole integers, i.e. 1,3,7,8, 10 etc...However, the theological foundation of Pythagoreanism was shattered by the discovery of irrationals, numbers that cannot be expressed by ratios involving only integers. One example is the square root of two, which comes out to be 1.414213562373095048801688724209698078569671875376948073176 ... and so on, without ever repeating itself. To make matters worse, far from being some abstract mathematical concept without existence, irrationals were found in the most basic structures of nature including squares and circles. As the story goes, with their theological universe shattered, Pythagoreans were sworn to secrecy regarding irrationals; those who violated that oath were disfellowshipped or (according to legens) suffered even worse fates.

Alien's writing
Since some years ago strange symbols were appearing in the wheat fields in England and some other places people have wondered how these were made. Well, travelers journeying by train from Southampton to London in 1895 noticed the meadows in the countryside blocked off in squares or diamond-shaped figures. In those days the farmers rolled the meadows, so that portions would lie one way, and other portions another way, just for the beauty and novelty of it.

Amasis
There are at least 3 individuals by the name of Amasis which we need to concern us with: 1. Ahmose/Amasis I, the founder of the 18th Dynasty; 2. Ahmose II Khnemibre Amasis II, successor of Hophra/Apries; 3. Ahmes (Amasis) mentioned in an inscription discussed by Abbe Treson. It appears this last Amasis had a huge sarcophagus transported into the Serapeum whose lid apparently got stuck in a corridor where it was found by Maspero. Since the sarcophagi of Cambyses and Khababash were found in situ the one of Amasis must be this latter Amasis discussed by Treson.

Amenemope and Hori
We know of at least two personalities by the name of Amenemope, the first one was a scribe and the second a priest. In this section we want to talk about the scribe. Among the texts composed in the time of Ramses II there is a letter written by a scribe named Hori to a scribe named Amenemope. Hori was insulted by Amenemope and charged with being ignorant; Hori replied in a sarcastic letter, proving his own experience and exposes the ignorance of his opponent. The field of knowledge he thought himself to be an authority in was Palestiniology. We cannot rule out that the letter was written in Palestine. In it we find many geographical names and Hebrew words and phrases according to this list:

1. Kiryath-n-b, city of 2. kemakh 3. koz 4. ashep 5. sofer yodea 6. mahir 7. Avadta kmo ari, mahir noam.

1. town of Kiryath-anab 2. flower 3. bramble 4. quiver 5. learned scribe 6. speedy scribe 7. "You have perished like a lion, said the speedy scribe."

Ramses II offspring spanning the time to Nectanebo I/Ramses III. A Workable Scenario.
Using revised dates can we match the claim of conventional historians that a great-grandson of Ramses II lived to see the days of Ramses III? We think we can and here is how.
Ramses II reigned for a long time in conventional chronology. In revised view Ramses II could count his reign 2 ways, his sole reign and his reign including the years he spent with his father teaching him how to be a king. This father/son coreign would/could have started close to 630? BC - (his sole reign: 609-569). Some 190 years separate Ramses II last year (569) from Ramses III first years (379).
A great-grandson of Ramses II , Hori, is supposed to have been alive at the time of Ramses III . If that means as king or more generally his life time is unclear. If Ramses III was about 30 years of age when ascending the throne, we could shorten the time from 190 to about 170? years, still too long a period for most life spans.
We know that Ramses II and many other personalities of distinction had multiple wives who bore children throughout most of his life span. If a son born late to Ramses II, let's say ca. 575 BC grew up and head another son (the grandson), ca. 545 BC or if late in life ca. 515 BC at 60 years of age, and this late son had a son late in life (now the great-grandson), ca. 450 BC, this great-grandson would have been 71 years of age at the time of the accession of Nectanebo I/Ramses III, a plausible scenario.

Von Ramses II. bis Ramses III. Hier ist die Beschreibung!
In Konventioneller Geschichte soll ein Großenkel von Ramses II., der Vizier Hori, noch die Tage von Ramses III. gesehen haben. Kann die hier benutzte revidierte Geschichte dies auch möglich machen? Wir denken, Ja!
In konventionellem Denken regierte Ramses II. für eine sehr lange Zeit. In revidierter Geschichte konnte er seine Regierungszeit auf zweierlei Weisen berechnen, seine Alleinherrschaft oder seine Vater/Sohn Mitregierung, die Seti dazu benutzte seinen Sohn darin zu unterrichten, wie man ein König ist (Sieh 400 Jahr Stele). Die Vater/Sohn Mitregierung könnte um 630 BC angefangen haben, seine Alleinherrschaft reichte von 609-569 v.Chr. 190 Jahre trennen Ramses II. von Ramses III. (379-361 v.Chr.).
Wir wissen das Ramses II. und auch viele andere Könige oder auch einflußreiche Männer oft mehrere Frauen hatten und während ihres Lebens Kinder hatten. Wenn also Ramses II. spät in seinem Leben, vieleicht um -575. einen Sohn hatte, und dieser Sohn auch spät in seinem Leben, also ca. -515 einen Sohn (der Enkelsohn) hatte, und dieser um -450 einen Sohn (nun der Großenkelsohn) hatte, wäre dieser letzt Nachkomme von Ramses II. 71 Jahre alt gewesen, als Ramses III. seine Regierung anfing. Eine nicht unmögliche Situation.

Amduat
What Is The Historical Amduat? The `Amduat' is a New Kingdom funerary text that was used to help the deceased avoid certain supposed dangers in the afterlife. The text itself is divided into twelve hours, which correspond to the twelve hours of night. During each hour the sun-god Ra encounters different entities and beings, while riding on his boat. During the course of the night it was thought, different deities may appear on Ra's boat, and Ra himself may also take on different forms. At the end of the twelfth hour, the sun is born and released back into the world, which symbolizes the rising sun. For additional information on the Amduat see the quote from Budge. Notice how Egyptian beliefs borrowed some of their views from the faith of Israel. Instead of worshipping the creator God they would worship innate objects of nature, even things made by human hands using the often claimed connection that they just represented something. The faith of Israel entails to worship God in the way we behave toward each other, in our minds and thinking without such man made representations. Israelites believed in death and the resurrection, not an immediate afterlife after death. [See the book of Job 14:12-14; Psalm 146:4; Ecclesiastes 9:5 quoted below.]

"Am-Tuat or Shat Am-Tuat, i.e., the "Book of what is in the Tuat," is that name give by Egyptians to the large funeral book in which the priests of Amen describe the Other World according to the views of their order, and the passage of their god Amen-Ra through the mysterious country which he traversed during the hours of the night. Its object, in the first place, was to impress the followers of Amen and others with the idea of the absolute supremacy of that god in the realms of the dead, and to show that all the gods of the dead in every place of departed spirits throughout Egypt rendered to him homage in one form or another, and in return received benefits from him. And in the second place, the book, being an actual "guide" to the Underworld, with pictures of its various divisions and of the gods and demons of every kind that were to be met with in them, was invaluable for the faithful, who were able to learn from it, while they were living upon earth, how to find their way from this world to the next, and how to identify the beings who would attempt to bar their way, and what to say to them."

The Book Am-Tuat was a very lengthy work, and a complete copy of it occupied much space whether on walls or on papyrus, and, as poor folk could not afford tombs with chambers and corridors sufficiently large to hold all its texts and pictures, they were obliged to be content with sections, and smaller extracts from it. The need of a shortened form of the work was felt at a comparatively early period after it came into general use, and it is therefore not surprising to find that the priest collected all the facts, which were absolutely essential for the soul that had to travel by itself through the Other World, into a small book that may for convenience be called the "Summary of Am-Tuat". In this "Summary" all the lengthy speeches of Amen-Ra, and the answers of the gods, and of course, all pictures are omitted."

Quoted from "The Egyptian Heaven and Hell" by E.A. Wallis Budge

The Hebrew faith is best expressed in the following quotations:
Job 14:12-14 "So man lies down and rises not: till the heavens be no more, they shall not awake, nor be raised out of their sleep. [Hebrews thought of the 1st death as a sleep because there would be a resurrection.] O that you wouldest hide me in the grave, that you wouldest keep me secret, until thy wrath be past, that thou wouldest appoint me a set time, and remember me!
If a man shall die, shall he live again? all the days of my appointed time will I wait, till my change come."

Psalm 146:4 "Put not your trust in princes, nor into people, in whom there is no help.
His breath goes out, he returns to this earth; in that very day his thoughts perish."

Ecclesiastes 9:5 "For the living know that they shall die: but the dead know not anything, neither have they any more a reward; for the memory of them is forgotten."

Revelation 20:6 "Blessed and holy is he who takes part in the first resurrection: on such the second death has no power, but they shall be priests of God and of Christ, and shall reign with him a thousand years." ... Meaning that after the 1000 years the second resurrection, that of those who died without choosing to be on God's team by asking forgiveness for their sins, will take place.
(End of discussion on Amduat)

Apis Bull
According to historians an uninterrupted series of Apis bull tombs were found reaching from the 30th year of Ramses II (conv. 1250 BC) to Ramses XI (conv. 1098-1069 BC), a period of some 155-180 years. No Apis tombs were found relating to the pharaohs of the first 3 kings of the 22nd Dynasty and all kings of the 21st Dynasty.
Historians also state that Apis tombs reappeared in 852 BC and remained in use until the rise of the Roman Empire dated to 312 BC with the construction of the Via Appia in Rome. How does Velikovskian chronology square with these dates for Apis bull burials? In our reconstruction Ramses II 30th year, if counted from the time he became the seated pharaoh was 579 BC, if counted from the time of his co-reign perhaps around 606 BC. In the case of Ramses XI, we date him from 463-454 BC as Iannaros of the Greek authors. The spread in time using 460 for Ramses XI is some 120-145 years.
The Apis bull burial stela found in the Serapeum are commemorative in nature and therefore not necessarily contemporary or even close to the time (within days or a few years) of the personalities memorialized. It is not impossible that some stela were placed there years after the event or personalities they were made for. As a result the data derived from these stela, either engraved or painted, ought to be regarded with more caution then current trends seem be. In addition the published data are reportedly based on scanty notes and drawings of Auguste Mariette lacking scientific thoroughness.
Kenneth Kitchens mentions a statue of the Nile god where the name of a high-priest is`Sheshonq'. The inscription mentions high-priests bearing names of kings or rulers like Sekhem-kheper-re Osorken "whose mother is Maat-kare, king's daughter of Har-Psoennes". He then equates the high-priest Sheshonq as being the son of Osorken I of the 22nd Dynasty. Next he identifies Har-Psoennes with Psoennes/Psusennes II, as the last pharaoh of the 21st Dynasty. But is Psusennes II and Har-Psusennes the same person? We think not for this is how modern historians introduced the confusion of the 22nd Dynasty kings.

Apogryphical Books
The Apogryphical Books are: 1. Judith; 2. The Wisdom of Solomon; 3. Tobit; 4. Sirach; 5. Baruch; 6.-7. 1.&2. Maccabees; 8. Add on to Esther; 9. Susanna & Daniel; 10. From Bel to Babel; 11. From the Dragon to Babel; 12. The Prayer of Asraja; 13. The Song of the 3 men in the Fiery Oven; 14. The Prayer of Manasseh; These 14 some books are rightly not considered to belong to the canonical, biblical books because they exhibit not the same spirit in style of writing, they contain in some cases doctrinal matter which opposes that of the canonical books, they exaggerate, Jesus and the apostles do not quote from them. By 1827 Bible Societies did not include these books in their printing projects of the Bible. We cannot follow the Catholic Churches lead in including these books in the holy writ of inspired books. The Catholic Church includes them because they help them in doctrinal matters on the false understanding of the state of the dead. However, as far as the historical books are concerned they may contain historical useful information if carefully investigated.

Aramaic
It appears Aramaic came in use in about the 9th century BC as single relics seem to indicate. In the days of the Babylonian Exile of the Jews it was one of the several languages in use at the court of Babylon (Daniel 2:4). In the 5th century BC, during Persian times, it was used in official correspondence, replacing Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) in Babylon. By the 1st century it had become the spoken language of the population of Palestine. Both the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmud, dating from the 1st to the 5th century AD, are written in Aramaic.
See also S.C. Layton, `Old Aramaic Inscriptions' in BA, Vol. 51, Sep 1988, p. 172-189; featuring B&W art images, a map and readable tablets.
Vladimir Lukonin tells us, since the Aramaic language, decreed to be the method of communications in the Achaemenian chancelleries, was written in Hebrew characters Old Persian cuneiform was suppressed. In areas where the edict had little or no effect the local languages created their own alphabets and the Aramaic language was fairly rapidly eliminated. For example, an Indian inscription by a king named `Asoka (ca. 268-232 BC)' of the Muarya Dynasty, was discovered near `Pul-i Darunta', Afghanistan, which is written in Aramaic but contains Prakrit words which represent an attempt to write the local language in the Aramaic alphabet. Soon there appeared in north-western India the Kharosthi script. By 200 BC the Aramaic language had disappeared from the whole of the Middle East (outside Palestine at least though) and was superseded by Kharosthi. [For Asoka's inscription at Kandahar see Robin Lane Fox, `Hellenistic Culture and Lterature' in Oxford's Greece and the Hellenistic World, p. 333.]
In Iran the situation was different. Aramaic still remained in use as documents from a wine store at Mihrdatkart show. In these documents all words are in Aramaic except place names, personal names and titles, which are written in Persian. [V. Lukonin, Persia II, NY, 1967, p. 12.]

Argos
Argos [Map] is famous in the Greek history of the Peloponesian Island. Located in the valley below Mycenae its environs offer a stunning view and many ancient sites.

Ark of the Covenant
Finding the ark of the covenant has been a goal of a number of adventurous men. Some think they have located an image of the ark on the walls of Medinet Habu carved by the artists of Ramses III but that is untrue for the stone in question was part of a frieze found in the ruins of a 3rd century AD synagogue near the Sea of Galilee. The ark in question does not meet the criteria in a number of ways however:
1. the sides of the ark were 2.5x1.5 cubits, a ratio of 5:3, Exodus 25:10.
2. one of the longer sides of the ark had a side pocket where the hand written ordinances of Moses were kept in as opposed to the tables of stone on which the Lord wrote the 10 Commandments with his own finger which were kept inside the box like ark itself, Deuteronomy 31:24-26;10:4,5.
3. The ark was made of precious, sturdy, inside and outside gold overlaid wood with a crown of gold running around its top edge. Other then that it had no ornate or special artistic design except for the golden lid of cherubim angels. [Exodus 25:11] The beauty of the ark was not supposed to be derived from the furniture itself but rather from the shekinah glory [Exodus 34:35; 40:34,35] which shun over it and the law it contained.
4. The ark had insertion points for carrying sticks and no wheels.
In general we may say that the ark was a sturdy, well built, plain sided, gilded wood box whose purpose was a holy one. It was to be the depository place for the most important document of the universe, the Ten Commandment Law of God. Except for the crown of gold running around its edge and the golden lid of cherubim angels it had no other ornate features for its purpose was not to memorialize human skills but the will of God for mankind. There are only two arks, the ark of the Israelite sanctuary and that one after it was patterned and which Moses saw in the heavenly sanctuary, Exodus 25:8-9. There is no reason to think that the ark was ever taken as booty by any conqueror or anyone at all.
Does Jeremiah 3:16 mean that there were other copies of the ark made? The ark had a special place in the faith of the Israelites and Jewish people. It was not something they would deal with out of their own volition. They would protect it from harm anyway they could. When Shishak took it all, the treasures of Jerusalem and the King's house, the ark is not mentioned and is not shown on the temple treasure reliefs of Thutmose III at Karnak. At times of enemy sieges these important sanctuary furniture were hidden away and so far no one was ever able to find them.
5. In the case of the Ark of the Covenant it was hidden by Jeremiah in a cave. The Apogryphical account reads as follows: "The document also described how the prophet, warned by an oracle, gave orders for the tabernacle (tent) and the ark to go with him when he set out for the mountain which Moses had climbed to survey God's heritage. On his arrival Jeremiah found a cave dwelling, into which he brought the tabernacle, the ark and the altar of incense, afterward blocking up the entrance. Some of his companions came up to mark the way, but were unable to find it. When Jeremiah learned this, he reproached them: `The place is to remain unknown,' he said, `until God gathers his people together again and shows them his mercy (Ex. 33:18,19). Then the Lord will bring these things once more to light, and the glory of the Lord will be seen, and so will the cloud, as it was revealed in the time of Moses and when Solomon prayed that the Holy Place might be gloriously hallowed." 2.Maccabees 2:4-9.

Arrowtips
The inscription reads `Zakarbaal, king of Amurru' on these about 4 inch long bronze arrow tips. Three generations of royalty have been identified among some 32 inscribed arrow tips published so far. Two mention Zakarbaal, one his father Ben Anath, and another his grandfather designated `MRS'. They are written in what is called `Proto-Canaanite and Early Phoenician linear script'. They are inscribed with the owner's name on one side and his title or father's name on the other. This way, after battles, they could identify the shooter when it came time to divide the spoils of war.
The location of the arrowhead casting room inside the fortress of Masada can be seen in BAR, Vol. 18, Jul/Aug 1992, p. 61.

Articles: 1. W. Dever, The Middle Bronze Age, Biblical Archaeologist, Sep. 1987, p. 149-177.
2. I. Eldar, A Chalcolothic Site of Beer-sheba Culture, Bibl. Arch., Sep. 1985, p. 134-139.
3. E.R.Williams, Ebla to Damascus, Bibl. Arch., Sep. 1985, p. 140-147.
4. J.W. Betlyon, Numismatics and Archaeology, Bibl. Arch., Sep. 1985, p. 162-165; ff. pages more related articles.
5. R.S. Merrillees, Political Conditions in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age, Bibl. Arch., Mar. 1986, p. 42-50; Also a good article on the Hittite Empire and Hattusas (with drawn image city wall); ff. pages more related articles.
6. Guy Lecuyot, Ta Set Neferu - The Valley of the Queens: A Brief History of Its Excavations', KMT, Summer 2000, Vol. 11, p. 42-55; Includes some detailed map drawings of the Valley of the Queens locations of tombs.
7. I. Beit-Arieh, Lynn Tatum Horvat Uza - A Fortified Border Outpost on the Eastern Negev Border', `King Manasseh and the Royal Fortress at Horvat Usa', BA, Sep. 1991, p. 126-145; Includes photographs and some detailed drawings of the fortress. States, "The most important finds at H.U. were the 28 Hebrew, 1 Edomite, and 1 Aramaic ostraca. Their contents include lists of people, apparently connected with food distribution, lists of names, and a literary text. The article features 1. the Ahiqma and 2. the Edomite ostracon.
8. Paolo Matthiae, Lorenzo Vigano New Discoveries at Ebla', `The Ebla Tablets', BA, Mar. 1984, p. 6-32; Includes images of tablets TM 75.G.1321 and TM 75.G.1713, a topographical sketch of the site, and isometric view of the Western Palace, photos of the palace remains, a cylinder seal impression which belonged to a son of King Indilimgur of Ebla, thought to be the last or one of the last kings of the city. Both tablets of the Ebla Archives demonstrate the peculiar arrangement of individual items written in cuneiform and enclosed in separate squares that are lined up in vertical columns but not horizontally. "In 1968, the discovery of a bust bearing the seal of Ibbit Lim, a prince of Ebla, on its shoulder was the first evidence permitting the identification to Tal Mardikh with Ebla. This identification was confirmed by the 1975 discovery of 17,000 tablets." [http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/041027/2004102712.html/dated ca. Nov 11.2004]
8b) Giovanni Pettinato, Ebla and the Bible in BA, Fall 1980, p. 203-216.; Author mentions Ebrium and his two princly sons Iksup-Damu and Si-Damu. States on the subject of anointing that a Hittite text says that Tudhaliya was anointed (ostensibly as a prince, king or for some sacred purpose as child or young man).
9. Y. Shiloh & D. Tarler Bullae from the City of David', BA, Dec. 1986, p. 197-209; Includes images an drawings of excavation areas and numerous bullae.
10. See also Gregory McMahon's, `The History of the Hittites', p. 62-77; R. Gorny, `Environment, Archaeology, and History in Hittite Anatolia', p. 78-96; G. Beckman, `The Religion of the Hittites', p. 98-108; J. Vorys Canby, `Hittite Art', p. 109-129; A. Unal, `The Power of Narative in Hittite Literature', p. 130-143; in BA, Jun/Sep 1989.
11. On the subject of terraced hills near Jerusalem and other locations see G.Edelstein and S.Gibson, `Ancient Jerusalem's Rural Food Basket' in BAR, Vol. VIII, Jul/Aug. 1982, p. 46-54 and W.Dever's, `Save us from Post-modern Malarkey' in BAR, Mar 2000, p. 28-(image of terraces: 32)-35, 68.
12. K.W. Whitelam, The Symbols of Power - Aspects of Royal Propaganda in the United Monarchy' in BA, Vol. 49, Sept. 1986, p. 166-173; featuring the fortress of Khirbet el-Marjameh on the isolated eastern slopes of the Ephraimite hill country.
13. How the science of Botany (and Paleoethnobotany) may aid archaeologists. Vaughn M. Bryant, `Does Pollen Prove the Shroud Authentic?' in BAR, Vol. 26, Nov/Dec 2000, p. 36-44. The article features enlarged images of a pollen grain from Gundelia Tournefortii, a thistle type plant, and discusses problems of its identification and a near look alike pollen grain from Chrysopsis of the sun flower family.
Drawings of pollen magnified 340x of a) spruce and b) silver fir can be seen in B. Fagan's, `In the Beginning', p. 125.
An 1800x magnified image of sweet alyssum can be seen in Nat. Geographic's, `The Adventure of Archaeology', 1985, p. 249.
See also Peter Warnock, The History of Paleoethnobotany in the Near East in NEA, Dec 1998, p. 238-252. Features micrographs of 2 `phytoliths, crystal bodies produced in some plant tissues, i.e. Triticum aestivum - bread wheat. Bread wheats phytolith is not diagnostic as other cereals also produce it. Also shown are `double-peaked' glume cells of oryza sativa- rice, is used to distinguish domesticated from wild rice. Botanical remains are often recovered by the flotation technique (Dausman machine, or by Froth flotation).
Images of pollen grains: Flowering Amazon tropical plants like Bombacaceae and Caesalpinoideae. Scientific American, May 2006, Vol. 294, p. 58.
For pollen images click Here! For water lilies click Here!

Pollen images of `pine' (pinus) pollen from a cess-pit below the stone toilet seat in the "House of Ahiel", Area G, the City of David excavation most of these pollen were understood to be dietary. Also shown is pollen of Liguliflorae, a subfamily of the Compositae or daisy family. Plants from this family may include those of "bitter herbs" eaten by the Israelites, Ex. 12:8, see also pollen grains from Olea europae (olive) used as comparative material. Peter Warnock NEA, Dec 1998, p. 245.
14. Ehud Weiss & Mordechai Kislev, Think small in BAR, Nov 2004, p. 32-37. They determined that at Ashkelon people ate: wheat, barley, almonds, figs, grapes, olives, pomegranates, chickpeas and lentils to name some of the more important foods. Other (medicinal?) plants found were: bay laurel tree, the oils of which were used for joint pain, neuralgia and as a balm for healing wounds. Its boiled berries and leaves were used as spice, to prevent diarrhea, perhaps for eye treatment, for bandages and urinary tract infections. In ancient times 4 acres were needed to supply the food for one person per year. The city had 2700 acres within a circle of 7 km surrounding it. This area could only supply 675 people. They imported foods from further away too.
15. For an article on Egyptian objects found unrecorded on the Mediterranean Island of Malta see Ancient Egypt, March 1928, p. 45-51. Discussed are the Stele of Onkhef (12th D.), the Stele of Thuy (12th), the Stele of Tetaty (18th), the Stele of Har-em-Hesit (12th), the tomb of Nigret containing Egyptian scarabs (1 of Sebek-hetep, 13th dyn.; others from other tombs of the 26th dyn.) and pottery and gold work from Ghain Qaied.
16. a) How did skilled workers like sculptors achieve a resting position to be able to make tall relief sculpters on walls and rocks? One way was the used what looks like stackable wooden bar stool like chairs as shown in Khaled Daoud's, `Unusual Scenes in the Saqqara tomb of Kairer' in Egyptian Archaeology, No.10, 1997, p. 6-7.
b) To see the a small, decorated wooden chair with a pillow stuffed with pigeon feathers thought to have been made for Sit-Amun, daughter of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye, see Doug Stewart, `Egypt's Crowning Glory' in Smithsonian, July 2003, p. 50-57.

17. Tools: Archaeologists have found a very wide variety of tools the ancients used to produce their work projects. We cannot mention many but only a few of them. A painters tool kit, consisting of 4 larger and 5 smaller cereal bowl shaped and one flatter rimmed pottery and 10-12 brushes, is shown in Daniel Polz, `An Egyptian Painter's Utensils from Dra' Abu el-Naga' im Egyptian Archaeology, No. 10, 1997, p. 34-35.
18. The archaeology of Megiddo, Hazor and Gezer is discussed by I. Finkelstein in his, `Where is the 10th Century?' in BAR, Vol. 24, Mar/Apr 1998, p. 56-61.
19. The plan and isometric drawing of the Iron Age fortress at Khirbet Abu et-Twein in BA, Vol. 49, Sep. 1986, p. 170.
20. Victor H. Mair, `Mummies of the Tarim Basin' in Archaeology, Mar 1995, p. 28-35; includes maps, mummy images; See also David W. Anthony & Nikolai B. Vinogradov, `Birth of the Chariot', Ibid., p. 36-41.
21. Yonathan Mizrachi, Mystery Circles' - Newly discovered circular walls in the Golan Heights, in BAR, Jul 1992, p. 47-57; featuring great images.
22. Victor H. Mair, `Mummies of the Tarim Basin' in Kazakhstan are featured in Archaeology, Mar 1995, p. 28-35.

Auaris
Auaris, Avaris or el Arish are all names for the same location. It is the location of the old Hyksos fortress located on the edge of the Mediterranean Sea on the way between Egypt and Palestine. This is were a quotation attributed to Manetho and quoted by Josephus places Avaris. "[Salitis, king of the Hyksos] left garrisons in the places most suited for defense. In particular he secured his eastern flank, as he foresaw that the Assyrians, as their power increased in the future, would covet and attack his realm. Having discovered in the Sethroite nome a city very favorably situated on the east of the Bubastis arm of the river, called after some theological tradition Auaris, he rebuilt and strongly fortified it with walls, and established a garrison there numbering as many as two hundred and forty thousand armed men to protect his frontier."[Josephus, `Against Apion', Bk I, Sec. 14] According to this source Avaris/El Arish had a great stone wall and could shelter some 240,000 men to protect the border of Egypt. Modern scholars, i.e. Manfred Bietak, want to locate at Pelusium in the eastern Nile Delta, he claimed his Avaris was 2.5 sqkm in size. Auaris was located on the river of Egypt when looking from Israel. This river was not the Nile but the only channel of water during the rainy season between Israel and the Nile, the Wadi el Arish.<sup>1)</sup> This is the same place which "the king" used to "eject those maimed people out of his country"<sup>2)</sup> (whose nose had been cut off for punishment). This stronghold was the staging area for the raids of the Amalekites into southern Palestine to rob the local population of the products of their fields. It is very likely that the desert sands hide here a rich bounty of gold and precious objects of the ancient Hyksos/Amalekite era for it is very likely that they hid their treasures underground before King Saul defeated them. The site of El Arish today is covered up with large sand dunes. In years gone by Dr. Avarim, director of Antiquities in Israel opposed the search for Auaris probably for political considerations. There is little doubt that the Hyksos had several centers and fortifications spread around in different areas including El Arish and Tell El Daba near Qantir.
1) a) Epiphanius said: "Rhinocorura" means "Nakhal" (bed of a river); Saadia translated "Nakhal Mizraim" as "Wadi el Arish", and similarly Abu-faid. [F. Hitzig, `Urgeschichte und Mythologie der Philistär', Leipzig, 1845, pp. 112ff] Hitzig recognized that el Arish must have been an old city (Laris of the Crusaders), but was unable to identify it any closer.
1) b) "Il est facile d'identifier les noms géographiques de l'antiquité, quand ils se sont conservés en arabe. Le tell Basta recouvre les ruines de Bubaste ... Mais le nom d'Avaris était tombé en desuétude bien avant la fin des temps pharaoniques." [P. Montet, `Le Drama d'Avaris', pp. 47-48]
2) `Out of his country' must mean here eastward, outside the limits of Egypt proper, or as one may say on the periphery of Egypt. No other place but today's El Arish/Avaris at coastal Sinai fulfills that geographical location which was called by the writers of the Septuagint `Nakhal Mizraim' (the stream of Egypt at el Arish). [See also Numbers 34:5 "...from Az-mon unto the river of Egypt"; 2.Kings 24:7; 2.Chronicles 7:8; From these scriptures we learn that this `nakhal' was the border of Egypt.

Ayadara
A fragmentary bronze band circlet was found during excavations at Mizpah bearing the cuneiform inscription, "Ayadara, King of the World". We don't know who Ayadara was. Guesses were made that he was a Babylonian official stationed at Mizpah. [BAR, Sep/Oct 1997, p. 38]

Aziru and similar names
Similar names may include Azariah, son of Amaziah, king of Judah, 2.Kings 14:21; 2.Chr. 26; Azor, Matthew 1:13-14; Azriel, chief of Manasseh, 1.Chr. 5:24; Azur, Ezekiel 11:1; Azzur, Neh.10:17; Arisai, Esther 9:9; Arza, 1.Kings 16:9; Arsa, short for Arsames;
How many Aziru's were there? The name of `Aziru' in Hittite/Babylonian Hittite diplomatic texts correspondence between Suppiluliumas and Aziru. Was Aziru `Haddadezer ' or `Rezin'? The name `Aziru = `azr', `arz' or `ars', made up of 2 consonants but given as 3 letters is a root of many names. Damien Mackey's paper shows a better connection of Haddadezer and Rezin to rulers known by compatible names in their own literature - none of these refer or have anything to do with Aziru.

Babylonian Stela Fragments and Recipes
According to reports 3 basalt stele fragments of Nabonidus first listed by Richard Koldewey found at the northern approach to the Ishtar Gate in Babylon which turned up missing at the time of the publication of his book may have been located in the British Museum. Koldewey's numbering system was Bab. 2728, 3379, and 3419. These conform exactly with three in the BM, where they are numbered respectively 1928-2-11, 1, 1b, and 1a; the group also bears the collective number 119298. The 1928-2-11 collection had been purchased from Major V.E.Mocatta. The appropriate excavation number, written in light blue ink, is clear on the base of 1928-2-11, 1b, and traces of light blue survive on the back of 1928-2-11, 1a.
Recipes; Yale University is in possession of numerous Babylonian/Akkadian recipe tablets. For text and images see Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 48, Mar 1985, p. 36ff.

Bannum
Bannum was a desert police officer who wrote one of the Mari Letters. In his letter addressed to Iakhdunlim(?) he mentions that all the cities of the Benjaminites were raising fire-signals for reasons not clear to us today. Presumably fire-signals were used to mobilize the troops of Israel or call for a gathering of the people. Since this Iahdulim or Iakhdunlim mentions only the Benjaminites he must belong to the time of King David. He also was the father of Zimri Lim and both belong into that time frame. There is reason to suspect that Iahdulim's incursion into Benjamite territory resulted into Saul's war against the Zobah Kingdom. [James B. Pritchard, `Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament', 3rd Edition, p. 482-483]

Famous Battles
Famous Egyptian Battles were those of Ahmose and Saul in driving out the Hyksos/Amalekites from Egypt (about 1012 BC). The Battle of Ain-Reshet also known as the Battle of Marashet-Gath in the annals of Amenhotep II against King Asa of Judah (about 895 BC). Also the famous battle of Ramses II/Necho II against the Hittites/Babylonian/Chaldeans at Carchemish (609 BC) and Ramses III/Nectanebo I fighting against the Plts (Prst), Persians and Greeks (377-374 BC).

Bay, Chancellor
The name of Bay occurs first in the time of the `three brothers' (Ramses Siptah, Sethos and Armais [Horemheb]). From being scribe he rose to a more responsible position as supposed on the grounds of his private tomb (KV13). His `resume' reads somewhat similar to that of Horemheb who were contemporaries. It appears that during this period in history, in revised view, such careers were possible probably on account of no native Egyptian kings having ruled for a while and/or due to the policies of the 22nd Dynasty rulers. More recently an ostracon sherd [IFAO 1864] is supposed to mention Bay and say something to the effect that in a year 5 of the pharaoh (presumably Tirhaka) that `the pharaoh had slaughtered the great enemy Bay'. [Personal e-mail; See BIFAO by Grandet publishing]
In conventional view scholars propose that Bay was a contemporary of Siptah/Twosert or even Ramses III whom they date in close proximity to Siptah which we have shown to be in error.
Two points speak in favor of our revision: 1. The similarity of career opportunities between Bay and Horemheb seem to agree with each other due to having been contemporaries in revised view, 2. It is much more likely that an enemy pharaoh like Tirhaka would destroy a native Egyptian rather than another native Egyptian his own countryman.

Bedouins
The word `bedouins' comes from badawiyin, people who live in open country, nomadic people. In number there used to be ½ a million scattered from Iran to Morocco. In ages past they provided the main means of transportation across the vast deserts. Famous tribes among them were the Tuareg and numerous other tribes. See `Arabic' for more information.

Beth Shan
Saul, after his victory over the Hyksos/Amalekites married Ahinoam/Ahotep (of 1.Samuel 14:50), the daughter of Ahmose I, Pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, who was known to the Hebrews as Ahimaaz (1.Samuel 14:50; See also HL). Saul and his Egyptian born wife Ahinoam lived in their fortress/palace at Beth-Shean (Anton Jirku, `Ägyptische Listen', (1967), p. 16; Topographical Lists: "Bet she'll" (defective spelling of "Bet Sha'ul". Therefore, the name of the pyramid like hill (Gibeah) was "Bet Sha'ul", the fortress of King Saul. [1.Sam.15:34; 31:10] Since the Hebrew `she' (short for `Asher') is translated by the Egyptian indirect genitive `en-Re', and since the Egyptians had no letter "L" (as in `El') and renders it by "R" (as in `Re'), the house of Saul on top of the hill may be called `the house of the sun god Re' (Helios = ha-El) or `Amon', who is pleased (hotep) with its owner King Saul, also known as Amenhotep or Amenophis I, husband to his Egyptian born wife, 1.Sam. 14:50.
So it is that the name of Saul's daughter `Mikal', was found on a stele at Beth-Shean according to Anton Jirku, op. cit.. [See also, Dr. Ewald Metzler, `Conflict of Laws in the Israelite Dynasty of Egypt', p. 12]
Later on `Beth Shan' was also known as `Scythopolis', "... Beth Shan, which is now called Scythopolis", [Josephus, `Antiquities', Bk. V, ch. I, Sec.22; Bk. XII, Ch. IV, Sec. 5; 2.Maccabeans 12:29ff] Eusebius also confirms this identification in, `Chronicle', 237, 55. See also Pliny, Natural History, V, 74: "Scythopolis-where a colony of Scythians are settled."
The name of one of the kings of Scythians, also known as Umman-Manda, was Dugdammi. Rather then being pressured by other peoples we think that cold weather was the primary, initial factor in their southward migration as well as the promise of riches to be had.
It was Dr. Clarence Fisher who uncovered the supposed Philistine layer some 30 feet below the surface at Beth-Shean and several yards deep at Ashkelon. Compare these depths to one yard deep at Tell Jemmeh.[T.Dothan, `People of the Sea, p. 58ff.]
From Seti the Great (I) a stele was found at Beth-Shan bearing a text which mentions a foe of Seti being in the town of Hamath. It mentions an alliance with those from Pehel and it mentions `the prince of Rehob'.
See also Ahimai Mazar, For Thousand Years of History at Beth Shean in NEA, June 1997, p. 62-76.; Shulamit Hadad, Incised Glass Vessels from the Umayyad and Abbasi-Fatimid Periods at Beth Shean in BASOR, Feb 2000, p. 63ff.

Berekh Yahu
"Berekh Yanhu, son of Neri Yahu, the scribe' was read on two bullae or lumps of clay impressions from the time of Jeremiah. [BAR, Mar/Apr 1996, p. 36]

Albert Bierstadt
He is our favorite painter of California landscapes, especially Yosemite Valley. You may see his work at the Haggin Museum.

Bokenkonsu or Bakenkhons
The name `Bakenkhons' was not uncommon in ancient Egypt.
1. Bakenkhons is mentioned on the list of Royal Architects found at Wadi Hammamat in Egypt. He is listed in the 21st place after Khnemibre, the author of the lengthy griffiti type inscription produced in th 26th year of the Persian King Darius, 496 BC.
2. Jansen-Winkeln wrote: "On his block statue in Munich the high priest Bakenkhons enumerates the various offices he has held along with exact indications of how long he held these offices. However, the period over which he acted as Hry iH (11 years) should be viewed as coinciding with the initial stages of his priestly career. Bakenkhons's biography can therefore no longer be used for the calculation of the minimal length of the reign of Sethos I or as a basis for the computation of priestly careers in general." [Jansen-Winkeln, Karl, `The Career of the Egyptian High Priest Bakenkhons', 52 (1993), 221-225]

Bronze
Bronze is a mixture (alloy) of at least two metals. During ancient history times bronze was either made of copper and tin or copper and zinc which is called brass. Usually other metals like lead or silver were also part of it in smaller quantities. Copper melts at 1085 degrees C, iron at 1500 degrees C. Meteoric iron contains nickel. Religious beliefs, the natural distribution of iron and copper, the quality of iron ore, the nature of the soil under cultivation were the chief factors in the competition between iron and copper.

A representative artifact judged to be of the Early Bronze Age from Israel is a "jug made of Nile mud and containing 5,500 fresh water shells common in Africa. They were apparently brought from Africa as food. Ya'acov Sharvit, of the Israel Antiquities Authority's Marine Archaeology Branch, said the discovery sheds new light on Egypt's contact's with Canaan. Scholars thought that reciprocal trade between Canaan and Egypt in the EB Age took place on land and that marine trade, mainly wood from Lebanon, circumvented the shores of Canaan." [`Erez', Dec/Jan03]

A Composite Bow
According to a report a sophisticated composite type bow was found in an Egyptian tomb. "The tomb in which it was found at Thebes has been referred by experts to the time of Ramesu II (XIX dynasty), or according to Mr. Petrie, as from 1275 to 1208 B.C." But the bow has characteristics of Assyrian origin and therefore is thought to belong to the 26th Dynasty. The complete account used to be at: http://snt.student.utwente.nl/campus/sagi/artikel/ ancient_composites/.
The lesson we learn from this account is the close association of 19th-26th Dynasty origin which is not surprising to us but telling in the conventional context of history.

Burial Caves
A karstic cave near Peki'in in the Galilee was used for burials in the Chalcolithic period (4th millennium BCE). The cave contains a large number of clay ossuaries (chests for storing human bones) with painted decorations, several of them representing human faces. They attest to a highly artistic society and provide evidence of the burial customs and the spiritual life of the Chalcolithic people. [See also Thomas E. Levy & J. Golden, `Syncretistic and Mnemonic Dimensions of Chalcolithic Art' in BA, Sep 1996, p. 150-159; Talks about finds in the `Piqe'in' Cave near Shiqmim, located on the north bank of the Nahal Beersheva.]
Literature: First Temple period burial cave in Jerusalem on the cave below the St. Étienne church with numerous images, BAR, Mar/Apr 1986, pp. 22-39. See also a short announcement `Chalcolithic Cache' in Archaeology, May/Jun 1996, p. 25, showing three-dimensional sculpted human clay heads from Galilee with flat faces.

Cadmeion
The Cadmeion was a temple structure at Thebes, Greece.

Caiaphas Images of the famous ossuary of the High Priest Caiaphas as well as the ivory pomegranate can be seen in `Biblical Archaeology Review' (BAR), Jan/Feb, 1984; Nov/Dec., 1988; May/June, 1992; Sep/Oct, 1992; Sep/Oct, 1993, p. 20.

Carchemish
The Battle of Kadesh, described and illustrated by Ramses II was Carchemish in the revised view and not Tell Nebi-Mend alongside the Orontes River.
The Orontes was not the `(p)nrt' of the battle according to the transliteration of the hieroglyphics in Egypt. [Breasted, `Records', Vol. II, Sec. 308, 311] The river `pnrt' was the river `phrats' as the Euphrates was called. However the Assyrian cuneiforms shown are not the equivalent of the hieroglyphics. While Egyptian Hieroglyphics source books have a name for the Orontes river, they have none for the mighty Euphrates. This should help us realize that the identification of `(p)rnt' with the largely insignificant Orontes River may not be correct. The Egyptians certainly knew about the mighty Euphrates which flowed the opposite direction then their own Nile River. So far we have not verified the location on the monuments of Ramses II where he tells how he got to `kadesh'. Other locations mentioned in the Egyptian inscriptions are like little footsteps leading to Carchemish. Among them are `Baw' the town of El Bab, Arima whose name today is Aranimi, `Mw' (water) of `Sdt' is the confluence of the `Euphrates' and `Sadjur', and all these are found on the road going from Egypt to Carchemich within a few dozen miles of Carchemish.
Kings of Carchemish included: Sanagara of the time of Shalmaneser III. [Pritchard, ARA, II, ANET. 277-281.]
Artifacts from Carchemish: These include a) what is described as an `archaic' Greek bronze greave. Together with the greave were found arrowheads, bones of horses and men in the West Gate of the Inner Town, a) an `archaic' Greek bronze shield found in in the unusually well built house D of the Outer Town, c) a Cypro-Phoenician silver bowl from Amathus. [W.D. Niemeier, Archai Greeks in the Orient in BASOR, May 2001, p. 11-32.]

Carnellite
A hallide, hydrated potassium magnesium chloride [KMgCl₃.6H₂O]. Can be colorless or reddish because of tiny laminae of hematite scattered through the mineral. Was used in ANE as a precious stone.

Cartouches of Egyptian Pharaohs
Cartouches of Dynasty 3 through 6 can be seen in BA, Sep 1988, p. 144.
Thutmoses I
The cartouche of Thutmose I.

The Caspian Sea
The word `caspian' comes from the Hebrew word `caspi' meaning `silvery'. When the 10 tribes were taken into exile by the Assyrians they settled in 3 main regions. 1. Near Halah (Khalakh), the confluence of the river Gozan and the cities of the Medes located beyond the Caucasus Mountains. Khalakh was Colchis, the south-eastern land of the Black Sea. Others settled alongside the great Volga River.

Chemical Archaeology
We recommend `Traces of the Past' by Joseph B. Lambert, Professor of Chemistry, 1997; A search will lead you to a site to order this book from.

Chicken in Ancient Egypt
While archaeologists have no hieroglyphic sign for chicken they were not unknown to the ancient inhabitants of the Valley of the Kings as an ostracon shows. [Morris Bierbrier, `The Tomb-Builders of the Pharaohs', 1982, p. 79, n. 54]

What is a Christian?
The definition of what a Christian is is frequently given wrong in dictionaries. A Christian is not simply someone who helps his neighbor or feeds and clothes the poor, for anyone could do that. The Bible definition of `what a Christian is' is found in the New Testament Books of Peter and James: In essence then, a Christian is one who is willing to give his life for Jesus Christ, 1.Peter 4:16; James 1:27-2:1; 4:10. A Christian is one who has in him the hope of glory, Col. 1:27. A Christian is one who walks like Jesus walked, i.e. with respect to character, not gait, 1. John 2:6.

What is Bible Christianity?
One of the false teachings of Protestantism is as follows, `Come to Christ and have your sins forgiven,' (We are not forgiven because we forgive, but as we forgive.) - with no mention of the necessity of obeying the Ten Commandments! That is like saying, `Only believe, and God will do the rest.' God's Word does not just tell men and women to come to Christ and be saved. Instead, warnings are repeatedly given of specific sins to be avoided or eliminated. Christianity is a battle, followed by a march to the next encounter. Only the soul who continually cries to Jesus for guidance and help, and then pushes through to daily victory, will make it through to the end.
`Good works?' What is wrong with good works? The Bible recommends them, so why should we try to get rid of them?

Works without faith are dead, and faith without works is dead. Therefore it is "dead works" that are the problem (Hebrews 6:1; 9:14). We are repeatedly urged to do good, worthwhile "works."

(All aside from the Old Testament passages on good works - including Exodus 20:3-17 - here are a number of intriguing passages in the New Testament: John 14:10, 12; Acts 9:36; 1 Timothy 2:10, 5:10, 25; 6:18; 2 Timothy 3:17; Titus 2:7, 14; 3:8, 14; Hebrews 10:24; James 2:14-26; 1 Peter 2:12; Revelation 14:13.)
It is true, there is the need to bring people to Christ for salvation - but there is far more that we need to tell them besides just coming to Christ! We live in a world filled with iniquity. Men and women are in open rebellion against the law of God. We must, in addition, tell them that, in Christ's strength, they must personally war against sin! We must specify sins they need to overcome.
Attempts, by this new theology, to demonize `good works' and exalt `saved by profession alone' will have a desolating effect on all who accept its errors. Far better is it to listen to the words of the prophet: "It is as true now as when the words were spoken to Israel of obedience to His commandments: `This is your wisdom and your understanding in the sight of the nations.' Deuteronomy 4:6. Here is the only safeguard for individual integrity, for the purity of the home, the well-being of society, or the stability of the nation. Amidst all life's perplexities and dangers and conflicting claims, the one safe and sure rule is to do what God says. 'The statutes of the Lord are right,' and 'he that doeth these things shall never be moved.' Psalms 19:8; 15:5." [Prophets and Kings, p. 83.]
"The blood of Christ is efficacious, but it needs to be applied continually. . . . {FLB 200.5} If it was necessary in ancient times for the unclean to be purified by the blood of sprinkling, how essential for those living in the perils of the last days, and exposed to the temptations of Satan, to have the blood of Christ applied to their hearts daily." [The Faith I Live By', p. 200.]
"At the entrance gate of the path that leads to everlasting life God places faith, and He lines the whole way with the light and peace and joy of willing obedience. The traveler in this way keeps ever before him the mark of his high calling in Christ. The prize is ever in sight. To him God's commands are righteousness and joy and peace in the Holy Spirit. The things that first appeared to be crosses are found by experience to be crowns." [`In Heavenly Places', p. 183]

Clay Tablets and Other Important Written Source Material
1) While clay tablets from the larger Mesopotamian territories are not rare, those from Israel and Egypt are rare except, in the case of Egypt, for the EL Amarna letters. However, French archaeologists found Mesopotamian style clay tablets in Ain Asil at the Dakhla Oasis in 1974. These tablets greatly surprised the archaeologists for they had hieratic writing on them produced with a stylus. [N. Reeves, `Ancient Egypt - The Great Discoveries', p. 240; Source shows three images of these tablets.]
2) a) Eight cuneiform clay tablets were found at Hazor, one in the early 1960's written in Akkadian proved to be part of a foreign language dictionary. In 1996 two more tablets were discovered "that exhibit the same grammatical and orthographic characteristics as the Canaanite documents in the Amarna archive, which date from the 14th century B.C.E (conventional dates). Only three lines remain of the other tablet, an economic text that lists several cities, including Hazor, which is spelled URU, or Ha-su-ra, as it is in the Amarna letters."[W.Horowitz & A.Shafer, `An Administrative Tablet from Hazor', Israel Exploration Journal, Vol. 42 1992, pp. 21-23 and `A Fragment of a Letter from Hazor', IEJ 42 (1992), pp. 165-167 also IEJ, 47 (1997), pp. 190-197; `Biblical Archaeology Review', May/June 1999, p. 30]
From Hazor we also have the fragment of a royal letter written in Old Babylonian cuneiform and addressed to, "To Ibni", a name guessed to be similar to the name `Jabin' known from the list of Canaanite place names at the temple of Karnak where it says, "Qishon of Jabin". See also Judges 4:23, "So God subdued on that day Ja'bin the king of Canaan, until they had destroyed Ja'bin king of Canaan." On the other hand, `Ibni' and `Jabin' may be totally different individuals but we should know about this cuneiform clay tablet. The river `Qishon' is thought to be the same as the a river by the name of Qedumim / or Qerumin of the geographic list of Ramses II at Karnak. [BAR, Vol. 20, Sep/Oct 1994, p. 61; Ibid., Vol. 25, May/Jun 1999, p. 30. Latter shows color image of the fragment; Judges 4 and 5. Also p. 62.]
Archaeologists have not yet given up to find the archives of Hazor as of 1999. The tablets have their closest parallels in the Mari tablets. [Ibid.; For large layout color images of Hazor see `Splendors of the Past', 1981, p. 84-85]
b) Fragments of clay tablets with administrative inscriptions in Akkadian (as well as other written documents) were also found in the Egyptian governors residence at Aphek. The chronological context of these finds is divided up between three palaces: Palace IV and V belonged to the kings of Aphek - vassals of Egypt - while the last palace (VI) housed an Egyptian governor.
i. Palace IV - Said to be built at the beginning of the Late Bronze Age on foundations of the mural remains of Middle Bronze Age Palace III. A covered pit contained dozens of bowls, chalices, lamps, and imported vessels.
In the revised scenario Palace IV, after its closure to habitation, stood in ruinous condition together with most of the rest of the city during the period of the 22nd and 25th Dynasty. In the days of Seti the Great it also was not used until Ramses II fortified it as a base for his war efforts against the Hittite/Chaldeans. The plaque was deposited upon the dedication of a temple to Isis, a feature "exceedingly rare before the Helenistic (Ptolemaic) Period."
ii. Palace V - Its orientation with respect to the previous palaces was entirely different and smaller. The lack of quality of its construction was also noted. A scarab bearing the name of Amenophis III (ca. 878-843 BC) was found on its floor, suggesting that the palace was built after that king's father, Amenophis II, had conquered Aphek during his 2nd campaign in the area.
iii. Palace VI - The Governor's Residence again was oriented entirely different and smaller indicating that the previous constructions were probably in quite a ruinous state. A faience foundation plaque was found bearing hieroglyphics deciphered as those of Ramses II (ca. 609-569 BC). Also found was about half of the only royal Hittite bulla outside the Hittite empire. The bulla is attributed to Hattushili III, following the signing of the peace treaty between Egypt and Hatti. Translated into revised chronology this would be Nebuchadnezzar signing the peace treaty with Necho/Ramses II. According to scriptural information sealing of documents with signet rings were common in the Babylon of Darius I, just a few years before Nebuchadnezzar leading us to conclude that the Babylonians also must have been acquainted with them and that bulla were in use equally during this time, Daniel 6:17. [Moshe Kokhavi, `Aphek in Canaan- The Egyptian Governor's Residence and its Finds', Jerusalem, 1990]
d) During the 3rd excavation, 1957, Area F of Hazor was excavated. Before that A, B (Yielded a small Israelite stone cosmetic palette.) , G, F, H. At this time a burial cave was discovered containing some 500 pieces of pottery, many of the Mycenaean type, and many skeletons piled up at the end of the tomb. The pottery included a) 10 bilbils, 2 ribbed pots of the Cypriote-Bucchero type (Fig. 3). Also found was a rock hewn network of tunnels 12 yards below the surface. [Yigael Yadin, `The Third Season of Excavation at Hazor, 1957' in BA, Vol. XXI, Feb. 1958, p. 30-48.]
3) We also have information of a very ancient Hebrew inscription found by Sir Flinders Petrie at the base of a sphinx. This inscription was described by H.Grimme in his contribution to `Alphabet' in the German language Encyclopedia Judaica in the pages under `Aach bis Lyra'. The two lines of writing consist according to Grimme out of two words each. According to Grimme must one letter be doubled at the word separation to make that letter the last letter of the third word and the first letter of the fourth word. This omitting of double used letters in an uninterrupted chain of Hebrew letters is not unknown.

Consensus
Coming to an agreement (German: Übereinstimmung) on something; choosing the middle of the road.

The Coronation of Solomon compared to that of Hatshepsut
When "... David was old and stricken in years ... Then Adoniah the son of Haggith exalted himself, saying: `I will be king, and he prepared him chariots and horsemen, and fifty men to run before him." 1.Kings 1:1,5.